Health risk assessment of the nexus between concurrent exposures to radon gas and particulate matter in resident buildings near cement factory
-
Oluwaseun Gabriel Dosunmu
,
Augustine Kolapo Ademola
,
Inioluwa Olowofila
,
Peter Oluwasayo Abodunrin
,
Babatola Funso Aina
Abstract
Introduction: Indoor air pollution is a growing public health concern, particularly in communities near industrial operations. This study evaluated indoor concentrations of fine and coarse Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10) and radon in residential buildings located near cement factories in a selected town in Ogun State, Nigeria. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the concurrent indoor exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 and radon gas in residences near cement manufacturing facilities, quantify the associated non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks, and examine the correlation between these co-occurring pollutants.
Materials and methods: Air quality measurements were carried out in 20 residential buildings near cement plants. PM2.5 and PM10 levels were measured using the Elitech Temtop LKC-1000S+ air quality monitor, while indoor radon concentrations were assessed with CR-39 solid-state nuclear track detectors. Particulate matter sampling was conducted twice daily over 30 consecutive days, while CR-39 detectors were deployed for a 30-day exposure period. Health risk evaluations followed standard models for both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic assessments. Correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between particulate matter and radon.
Results: Mean indoor concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 were 39.94 μg/m³ and 60.83 μg/m³, respectively, both above WHO limits. Radon concentrations averaged 92.48 Bq/m³, with 40% of sampled homes exceeding the WHO recommended level of 100 Bq/m³. Hazard quotients for PM2.5 ranged from 2.3 to 3.0 and for PM10 from 1.0 to 1.5, yielding an average hazard index of 3.89. Elevated annual effective doses and excess lifetime cancer risks were also associated with radon. A positive correlation was found between particulate matter and radon levels.
Conclusion: The study reveals a significant combined health risk from PM and radon exposure in homes near cement factories. Targeted mitigation, improved regulation, and public health awareness are urgently needed to reduce exposure and protect residents.
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3. Heseltine E, Rosen J, editors. WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Dampness and Mould. Copenhagen: WHO; 2009.
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9. Awhida AAS. Novel method for measurement of radon exhalation from building materials [dissertation]. University of Belgrade; 2017.
10. Nunes LJ, Curado A, Lopes SI. The relationship between radon and geology: sources, transport and indoor accumulation. Appl Sci. 2023;13(13):7460.
11. Hopke PK. A critical review of measurements of the unattached fraction of the radon decay products. Health Phys. 1990;58(2):127–32.
12. Smerajec M, Vaupotič J. Nanoaerosols including radon decay products in outdoor and indoor air at a suburban site. J Toxicol. 2012;2012:510876.
13. Mostafa MY, Khalaf HN, Zhukovsky M. Radon decay products equilibrium at different aerosol concentrations. Appl Radiat Isot. 2020;156:108981.
14. Coggle JE, Lambert BE, Moores SR. Radiation effects in the lung. Environ Health Perspect. 1986;70:261–91.
15. Whiteside M, Herndon JM. New paradigm: Coal fly ash as the main cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. Eur J Appl Sci. 2022;10(5).
16. Nero AV. Indoor radon and its decay products: concentrations, causes, and control strategies. Health Phys. 2008;94(1):1–12
17. Ravikumar P, Somashekar RK. Estimates of the dose of radon and its progeny inhaled inside buildings. Eur J Environ Sci. 2013;3(2):75–81.
18. Mutlu A. Air quality impact of particulate matter (PM10) releases from an industrial source. Environ Monit Assess. 2020;192:1–17.
19. Begum BA, Paul D, Hossain SM. Impact of cement dust on soil, water and air quality in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Int J Environ Sci Dev. 2019;10(12):406–10.
20. Baskaran M. Radon: A Tracer for Geological, Geophysical and Geochemical Studies. Basel: Springer; 2016.
21. Diener A, Mudu P. How can vegetation protect us from air pollution? A critical review on green spaces’ mitigation abilities for airborne particles from a public health perspective—with implications for urban planning. Sci Total Environ. 2021;796:148605.
22. Thornburg JW, Rodes CE, Lawless PA, Stevens CD, Williams RW. A pilot study of the influence of residential HAC duty cycle on indoor air quality. Atmospheric Environment. 2004 Apr 1;38(11):1567-77
23. Laverge J, Spilak M, Novoselac A. Experimental assessment of the inhalation zone of standing, sitting and sleeping persons. Building and environment. 2014 Dec 1;82:258-66.
24. El-Araby EH, Shabaan DH, Yousef Z. Evaluation of radon concentration and natural radioactivity exposure from the soil of Wadi Hodein region, Egypt. Int J Radiat Res. 2021;19(3):719–27.
25. Correia Filho WLF, da Costa RR, Tavella RA, de Oliveira-Júnior JF, de Barros Santiago D, da Silva Junior CA, et al. Evaluation of the PM2.5 concentrations in South America: Climatological patterns and trend analysis. Atmos Environ. 2024;338:120800.
26. Li M, Wang L, Liu J, Gao W, Song T, Sun Y, et al. Exploring the regional pollution characteristics and meteorological formation mechanism of PM2.5 in North China during 2013–2017. Environ Int. 2020;134:105283.
27. US EPA. Concepts, Methods and Data Sources for Cumulative Health Risk Assessment of Multiple Chemicals, Exposures and Effects: A Resource Document. EPA/600/R-06/013F. Cincinnati: National Center for Environmental Assessment; 2007.
28. Miklyaev PS, Petrova TB. Study of abnormal seasonal variations in the radon exhalation rate in a fault zone. Geochem Int. 2021;59:435–47.
29. Alhamdi WA, Abdullah MS. Soil radon exhalation rate measurement in Duhok city by two techniques. Nucl Technol Radiat Prot. 2022;37(3):229–34.
30. Marsh JW, Tomášek L, Laurier D, Harrison JD. Effective dose coefficients for radon and progeny: a review of ICRP and UNSCEAR values. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2021;195(1):1–20.
31. Dehkordi AN. Assessment of radiation doses to the West Rand public due to inhalation of 222Rn and its daughter products [thesis]. Faculty of Science; 2012.
32. Othman SQ, Ahmed AH, Mohammed SI. Lung dosimetry model of inhaled 222Rn for workers at selected building material factories in Erbil City, Iraq. Polytech J. 2023;13(2):9.
33. Ibikunle SB, Arogunjo AM, Ajayi OS. Characterization of radiation dose and soil-to-plant transfer factor of natural radionuclides in some cities from south-western Nigeria and its effect on man. Sci Afr. 2019;3:e00062.
34. Ogungbemi KI, Adedokun MB, Ibitoye AZ, Oyebola OO, Owoade RL. Estimation of radiological impact of the activities of Olusosun dump site on workers and dwellers of Olusosun, Lagos Southwest Nigeria. J Radiat Res. 2023;64(1):53–62.
35. World Health Organization (WHO). Global Air Quality Guidelines: Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. Geneva: WHO; 2021.
36. Smith CT. Relationship among woody biomass, forest fire, biochar, and bioenergy [dissertation]. Baton Rouge: Southern University and A&M College; 2024.
37. Ferrini F, Fini A, Mori J, Gori A. Role of vegetation as a mitigating factor in the urban context. Sustainability. 2020;12(10):4247.
38. Post GB. Recent US state and federal drinking water guidelines for per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2021;40(3):550–63.
39. City CRP. Environmental health risk assessment of inhaled dust exposure on workers at industry crumb rubber Palembang. Unpublished report. 2023.
40. Morakinyo OM, Mukhola MS, Mokgobu MI. Health risk analysis of elemental components of an industrially emitted respirable particulate matter in an urban area. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(7):3653.
41. Suryaman US, Rahman A. Safe area for residential population to reside near limestone mining: A risk management approach. Indones J Health Ecol. 2011;10(4):79658.
42. Ihsan IM, Oktivia R, Anjani R, Zahroh NF. Health risk assessment of PM2.5 and PM10 in KST BJ Habibie, South Tangerang, Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2023;1201(1):012033.
43. Sakunkoo P, Thonglua T, Sangkham S, Jirapornkul C, Limmongkon Y, Daduang S, et al. Human health risk assessment of PM2.5-bound heavy metal of anthropogenic sources in the Khon Kaen Province of Northeast Thailand. Heliyon. 2022;8(6):e09625.
44. Susanti WE, Faisya AF, Novrikasari N. Analysis of environmental health risks of cement dust in cement grinding and packing. Jurnal Aisyah J Ilmu Kesehatan. 2021;6(2):341–6.
45. Sainz Fernández C, Fuente Merino I, Nicolás Muñoz J, Quindós López L, Fernández Villar A. Radon in Spanish homes. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2016;168(3):416–21.
46. Tsertos H, Christofides S, Christodoulides G. Indoor radon concentrations in Cyprus using CR-39 detectors. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2001;93(2):109–18.
47. Darby S, Hill D, Auvinen A, Barros-Dios JM, Baysson H, Bochicchio F, Deo H, Falk R, Forastiere F, Hakama M, Heid I. Radon in homes and risk of lung cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies. Bmj. 2005 Jan 27;330(7485):223.
48. Li P, Wang H, Zhang H. Assessment of indoor radon and thoron concentrations and the associated dose rates in dwellings of Guangdong, China. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2015;163(4):494–9.
49. Venoso G, Mangiacotti M, Giovani C. Indoor radon concentration and its correlation with soil characteristics in a high radon risk area in Italy. J Environ Radioact. 2017;169–170:64–72.
50. Mazur J, Kozak K. Radon concentration and effective doses in houses in the Krakow region. J Radiol Prot. 2014;34(4):873–83.
51. Al-Jarallah MI, Fazal-ur-Rehman M, Al-Shahri FM. Indoor radon measurements in dwellings of Al-Jawf region of Saudi Arabia. Radiat Meas. 2005;40(2–6):625–9.
52. Morawska L, Afshari A, Bae GN, Buonanno G, Chao CYH, Hänninen O, et al. Indoor aerosols: from personal exposure to risk assessment. Indoor Air. 2013;23(6):462–87.
53. Chen R, Yin P, Meng X, Liu C, Wang L, Xu X, et al. Fine particulate air pollution and daily mortality: a nationwide analysis in 272 Chinese cities. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;196(1):73–81.
54. Turner MC, Krewski D, Chen Y, Pope CA III, Gapstur S, Thun MJ. Radon and lung cancer in the American Cancer Society cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20(3):438–48.
55. Chen CF, Hsu CH, Chang YJ, Lee CH, Lee DL. Efficacy of HEPA air cleaner on improving indoor particulate matter 2.5 concentration. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(18):11517.
56. Saini J, Dutta M, Marques G. A comprehensive review on indoor air quality monitoring systems for enhanced public health. Sustain Environ Res. 2020;30:1–12.
2. DeVries T, Holzer M, Primeau F. Recent increase in oceanic carbon uptake driven by weaker upper-ocean overturning. Nature. 2017;542(7640):215–8.
3. Heseltine E, Rosen J, editors. WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Dampness and Mould. Copenhagen: WHO; 2009.
4. Holgate S, Grigg J, Arshad H, Carslaw N, Cullinan P, Dimitroulopoulou S, Hunter L. Health effects of indoor air quality on children and young people. WHO; 2020.
5. Liu Y, Paciorek CJ, Koutrakis P. Estimating regional spatial and temporal variability of PM2.5 concentrations using satellite data, meteorology, and land use information. Environ Health Perspect. 2009;117(6):886–92.
6. Mendoza DL, Pirozzi CS, Crosman ET, Liou TG, Zhang Y, Cleeves JJ, et al. Absentee and economic impact of low-level fine particulate matter and ozone exposure in K-12 students. arXiv preprint arXiv:2007.09230; 2020.
7. World Health Organization (WHO). Ambient air quality [Internet]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health
8. Nunes LJ, Curado A, Lopes SI. The relationship between radon and geology: sources, transport and indoor accumulation. Appl Sci. 2023;13(13):7460.
9. Awhida AAS. Novel method for measurement of radon exhalation from building materials [dissertation]. University of Belgrade; 2017.
10. Nunes LJ, Curado A, Lopes SI. The relationship between radon and geology: sources, transport and indoor accumulation. Appl Sci. 2023;13(13):7460.
11. Hopke PK. A critical review of measurements of the unattached fraction of the radon decay products. Health Phys. 1990;58(2):127–32.
12. Smerajec M, Vaupotič J. Nanoaerosols including radon decay products in outdoor and indoor air at a suburban site. J Toxicol. 2012;2012:510876.
13. Mostafa MY, Khalaf HN, Zhukovsky M. Radon decay products equilibrium at different aerosol concentrations. Appl Radiat Isot. 2020;156:108981.
14. Coggle JE, Lambert BE, Moores SR. Radiation effects in the lung. Environ Health Perspect. 1986;70:261–91.
15. Whiteside M, Herndon JM. New paradigm: Coal fly ash as the main cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. Eur J Appl Sci. 2022;10(5).
16. Nero AV. Indoor radon and its decay products: concentrations, causes, and control strategies. Health Phys. 2008;94(1):1–12
17. Ravikumar P, Somashekar RK. Estimates of the dose of radon and its progeny inhaled inside buildings. Eur J Environ Sci. 2013;3(2):75–81.
18. Mutlu A. Air quality impact of particulate matter (PM10) releases from an industrial source. Environ Monit Assess. 2020;192:1–17.
19. Begum BA, Paul D, Hossain SM. Impact of cement dust on soil, water and air quality in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Int J Environ Sci Dev. 2019;10(12):406–10.
20. Baskaran M. Radon: A Tracer for Geological, Geophysical and Geochemical Studies. Basel: Springer; 2016.
21. Diener A, Mudu P. How can vegetation protect us from air pollution? A critical review on green spaces’ mitigation abilities for airborne particles from a public health perspective—with implications for urban planning. Sci Total Environ. 2021;796:148605.
22. Thornburg JW, Rodes CE, Lawless PA, Stevens CD, Williams RW. A pilot study of the influence of residential HAC duty cycle on indoor air quality. Atmospheric Environment. 2004 Apr 1;38(11):1567-77
23. Laverge J, Spilak M, Novoselac A. Experimental assessment of the inhalation zone of standing, sitting and sleeping persons. Building and environment. 2014 Dec 1;82:258-66.
24. El-Araby EH, Shabaan DH, Yousef Z. Evaluation of radon concentration and natural radioactivity exposure from the soil of Wadi Hodein region, Egypt. Int J Radiat Res. 2021;19(3):719–27.
25. Correia Filho WLF, da Costa RR, Tavella RA, de Oliveira-Júnior JF, de Barros Santiago D, da Silva Junior CA, et al. Evaluation of the PM2.5 concentrations in South America: Climatological patterns and trend analysis. Atmos Environ. 2024;338:120800.
26. Li M, Wang L, Liu J, Gao W, Song T, Sun Y, et al. Exploring the regional pollution characteristics and meteorological formation mechanism of PM2.5 in North China during 2013–2017. Environ Int. 2020;134:105283.
27. US EPA. Concepts, Methods and Data Sources for Cumulative Health Risk Assessment of Multiple Chemicals, Exposures and Effects: A Resource Document. EPA/600/R-06/013F. Cincinnati: National Center for Environmental Assessment; 2007.
28. Miklyaev PS, Petrova TB. Study of abnormal seasonal variations in the radon exhalation rate in a fault zone. Geochem Int. 2021;59:435–47.
29. Alhamdi WA, Abdullah MS. Soil radon exhalation rate measurement in Duhok city by two techniques. Nucl Technol Radiat Prot. 2022;37(3):229–34.
30. Marsh JW, Tomášek L, Laurier D, Harrison JD. Effective dose coefficients for radon and progeny: a review of ICRP and UNSCEAR values. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2021;195(1):1–20.
31. Dehkordi AN. Assessment of radiation doses to the West Rand public due to inhalation of 222Rn and its daughter products [thesis]. Faculty of Science; 2012.
32. Othman SQ, Ahmed AH, Mohammed SI. Lung dosimetry model of inhaled 222Rn for workers at selected building material factories in Erbil City, Iraq. Polytech J. 2023;13(2):9.
33. Ibikunle SB, Arogunjo AM, Ajayi OS. Characterization of radiation dose and soil-to-plant transfer factor of natural radionuclides in some cities from south-western Nigeria and its effect on man. Sci Afr. 2019;3:e00062.
34. Ogungbemi KI, Adedokun MB, Ibitoye AZ, Oyebola OO, Owoade RL. Estimation of radiological impact of the activities of Olusosun dump site on workers and dwellers of Olusosun, Lagos Southwest Nigeria. J Radiat Res. 2023;64(1):53–62.
35. World Health Organization (WHO). Global Air Quality Guidelines: Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. Geneva: WHO; 2021.
36. Smith CT. Relationship among woody biomass, forest fire, biochar, and bioenergy [dissertation]. Baton Rouge: Southern University and A&M College; 2024.
37. Ferrini F, Fini A, Mori J, Gori A. Role of vegetation as a mitigating factor in the urban context. Sustainability. 2020;12(10):4247.
38. Post GB. Recent US state and federal drinking water guidelines for per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2021;40(3):550–63.
39. City CRP. Environmental health risk assessment of inhaled dust exposure on workers at industry crumb rubber Palembang. Unpublished report. 2023.
40. Morakinyo OM, Mukhola MS, Mokgobu MI. Health risk analysis of elemental components of an industrially emitted respirable particulate matter in an urban area. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(7):3653.
41. Suryaman US, Rahman A. Safe area for residential population to reside near limestone mining: A risk management approach. Indones J Health Ecol. 2011;10(4):79658.
42. Ihsan IM, Oktivia R, Anjani R, Zahroh NF. Health risk assessment of PM2.5 and PM10 in KST BJ Habibie, South Tangerang, Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2023;1201(1):012033.
43. Sakunkoo P, Thonglua T, Sangkham S, Jirapornkul C, Limmongkon Y, Daduang S, et al. Human health risk assessment of PM2.5-bound heavy metal of anthropogenic sources in the Khon Kaen Province of Northeast Thailand. Heliyon. 2022;8(6):e09625.
44. Susanti WE, Faisya AF, Novrikasari N. Analysis of environmental health risks of cement dust in cement grinding and packing. Jurnal Aisyah J Ilmu Kesehatan. 2021;6(2):341–6.
45. Sainz Fernández C, Fuente Merino I, Nicolás Muñoz J, Quindós López L, Fernández Villar A. Radon in Spanish homes. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2016;168(3):416–21.
46. Tsertos H, Christofides S, Christodoulides G. Indoor radon concentrations in Cyprus using CR-39 detectors. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2001;93(2):109–18.
47. Darby S, Hill D, Auvinen A, Barros-Dios JM, Baysson H, Bochicchio F, Deo H, Falk R, Forastiere F, Hakama M, Heid I. Radon in homes and risk of lung cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies. Bmj. 2005 Jan 27;330(7485):223.
48. Li P, Wang H, Zhang H. Assessment of indoor radon and thoron concentrations and the associated dose rates in dwellings of Guangdong, China. Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2015;163(4):494–9.
49. Venoso G, Mangiacotti M, Giovani C. Indoor radon concentration and its correlation with soil characteristics in a high radon risk area in Italy. J Environ Radioact. 2017;169–170:64–72.
50. Mazur J, Kozak K. Radon concentration and effective doses in houses in the Krakow region. J Radiol Prot. 2014;34(4):873–83.
51. Al-Jarallah MI, Fazal-ur-Rehman M, Al-Shahri FM. Indoor radon measurements in dwellings of Al-Jawf region of Saudi Arabia. Radiat Meas. 2005;40(2–6):625–9.
52. Morawska L, Afshari A, Bae GN, Buonanno G, Chao CYH, Hänninen O, et al. Indoor aerosols: from personal exposure to risk assessment. Indoor Air. 2013;23(6):462–87.
53. Chen R, Yin P, Meng X, Liu C, Wang L, Xu X, et al. Fine particulate air pollution and daily mortality: a nationwide analysis in 272 Chinese cities. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;196(1):73–81.
54. Turner MC, Krewski D, Chen Y, Pope CA III, Gapstur S, Thun MJ. Radon and lung cancer in the American Cancer Society cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20(3):438–48.
55. Chen CF, Hsu CH, Chang YJ, Lee CH, Lee DL. Efficacy of HEPA air cleaner on improving indoor particulate matter 2.5 concentration. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(18):11517.
56. Saini J, Dutta M, Marques G. A comprehensive review on indoor air quality monitoring systems for enhanced public health. Sustain Environ Res. 2020;30:1–12.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 11 No 3 (2026): Summer 2026 | |
| Section | Original Research | |
| Keywords | ||
| Indoor air pollution; Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10); Radon; Cement production; Health risk assessment; Alpha track detection | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Dosunmu O, Ademola A, Olowofila I, Abodunrin P, Funso Aina B. Health risk assessment of the nexus between concurrent exposures to radon gas and particulate matter in resident buildings near cement factory. JAPH. 2026;11(3):395-410.
