Assessment of ambient air quality and health risks from vehicular emissions in urban Ghana: A case study of Winneba
-
Francis Kwaku Nkansah
,
Ebenezer Jeremiah Durosimi Belford
,
Jonathan Nartey Hogarh
,
Alfred Kwablah Anim
Abstract
Introduction: In Ghana, the road subsector serves as the primary mode of transport, accounting for 96% of passenger and cargo traffic. Air quality issues have been exacerbated by the prevalence of aged and poorly performing vehicular engines, posing significant health risks. This study, therefore, investigated ambient air quality during the dry season along key roadways in Winneba, located in the Central Region of Ghana.
Materials and methods: Stationary monitoring devices, including EPAM-7500 particulate monitors and Aeroqual Series 500 gas monitors were used to measure concentrations of Particulate Matters (PM₂.₅, PM₁₀), Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), and Volatile Organic Compound (VOCs) including temperature and relative humidity. Data collection was conducted using a purposive rotation among the selected roads, with each monitoring session replicated three times.
Results: Winneba junction-WindyBay Avenue (WJ’WBA) exhibited the highest concentrations of CO (2125±182.40 µg/m³) whilst the highest level of NOₓ (198±27.01 µg/m³) was at Winneba central-Donkorkyiem (WC’D). PM2.5 concentrations at WJ’WBA was the lowest (871 ± 79.54 µg/m³), while the Control Road (CR) had highest mean concentration of 902 ± 107.16 µg/m³. The PM10 highest mean level was at WJ’WBA (931±51.29 µg/m³) and lowest at the CR (874±90.42 µg/m³). Levels of SO₂ and VOCs were below the detection limits of the gas monitors. In all, levels of the measured pollutants did not differ significantly (p<0.05) between the sampling locations, but exceeded the pollution thresholds established by the World Health Organization (WHO) and
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). All monitored roads were classified as "extremely polluted" based on the Air Quality Index (AQI). The Exceedance Factors (EF) confirmed the severity of pollution levels. Statistical analyses, correlation and regression methods, indicated no significant relationship between weather conditions and air pollution levels.
Conclusion: These findings underscore the severity of air quality issues in Winneba and the urgent need for enhanced monitoring systems including the implementation of regular vehicular emission testing and the use of bioindicators for monitoring vehicular pollutants to mitigate both human and environmental health risks.
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38. Jain MK, Saxena N. Air quality assessment along Dhanbad–Jharia road. Environmental monitoring and assessment. 2002;79:239-50.
39. Saikat Banerjee SB, Singh A, Banerjee S. Impact of flyash on foliar chemical and biochemical composition of naturally occurring ground flora and its possible utilization for growing tree crops. 2003.
40. Katoto PD, Byamungu L, Brand AS, Mokaya J, Strijdom H, Goswami N, et al. Ambient air pollution and health in Sub-Saharan Africa: Current evidence, perspectives and a call to action. Environmental research. 2019;173:174-88.
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46. Choudhary A, Gokhale S. On-road measurements and modelling of vehicular emissions during traffic interruption and congestion events in an urban traffic corridor. Atmospheric Pollution Research. 2019;10(2):480-92.
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48. Nesamani K. Estimation of automobile emissions and control strategies in India. Science of the Total Environment. 2010;408(8):1800-11.
49. Doumbia M, Kouassi AA, Silué S, Yoboué V, Liousse C, Diedhiou A, et al. Road traffic emission inventory in an urban zone of West Africa: case of Yopougon City (Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire). Energies. 2021;14(4):1111.
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2. Shrestha S, Baral B, Dhital NB, Yang H-H. Assessing air pollution tolerance of plant species in vegetation traffic barriers in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Sustainable Environment Research. 2021;31(1):3.
3. Iqbal A, Afroze S, Rahman MM. Probabilistic health risk assessment of vehicular emissions as an urban health indicator in Dhaka city. Sustainability. 2019;11(22):6427.
4. Anwar MN, Shabbir M, Tahir E, Iftikhar M, Saif H, Tahir A, et al. Emerging challenges of air pollution and particulate matter in China, India, and Pakistan and mitigating solutions. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2021;416:125851.
5. Kumar A, Kumar P, Singh H, Kumar N. Adaptation and mitigation potential of roadside trees with bio-extraction of heavy metals under vehicular emissions and their impact on physiological traits during seasonal regimes. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 2021;58:126900.
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7. Munsif R, Zubair M, Aziz A, Zafar MN. Industrial air emission pollution: potential sources and sustainable mitigation. Environmental Emissions: IntechOpen; 2021.
8. Ayetor G, Mbonigaba I, Ampofo J, Sunnu A. Investigating the state of road vehicle emissions in Africa: A case study of Ghana and Rwanda. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 2021;11:100409.
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10. Organization WH. Economic costs of air pollution in Accra, Ghana: World Health Organization; 2021 [Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240017320.
11. Rai PK. Impacts of particulate matter pollution on plants: Implications for environmental biomonitoring. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety. 2016;129:120-36.
12. Glenn BE, Espira LM, Larson MC, Larson PS. Ambient air pollution and non-communicable respiratory illness in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review of the literature. Environmental Health. 2022;21(1):40.
13. Fisher S, Bellinger DC, Cropper ML, Kumar P, Binagwaho A, Koudenoukpo JB, et al. Air pollution and development in Africa: impacts on health, the economy, and human capital. The Lancet Planetary Health. 2021;5(10):e681-e8.
14. Kebe M, Traore A, Manousakas MI, Vasilatou V, Ndao AS, Wague A, et al. Source apportionment and assessment of air quality index of PM2. 5–10 and PM2. 5 in at two different sites in urban background area in Senegal. Atmosphere. 2021;12(2):182.
15. El Ghazi I, Berni I, Menouni A, Amane M, Kestemont M-P, El Jaafari S. Exposure to air pollution from road traffic and incidence of respiratory diseases in the city of Meknes, Morocco. Pollutants. 2022;2(3):306-27.
16. Cetin M, Aljama AMO, Alrabiti OBM, Adiguzel F, Sevik H, Zeren Cetin I. Determination and mapping of regional change of Pb and Cr pollution in Ankara city center. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 2022;233(5):163.
17. Dixit A, Nigam M, Mishra R. Contaminated land area due to industrial hazardous waste generation and its remediation in India. International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science (IJAEMS). 2016;2(6):727-34.
18. Makhubele N, Rathebe P, Mbonane T, Manganyi J, Mizan G, Masekameni MD. Indoor/Outdoor particulate matter (respirable dust) and respirable crystalline silica source tracking in households located proximal to gold mine tailings in Johannesburg, South Africa. Journal of Air Pollution and Health. 2024.
19. Arku RE, Dionisio KL, Hughes AF, Vallarino J, Spengler JD, Castro MC, et al. Personal particulate matter exposures and locations of students in four neighborhoods in Accra, Ghana. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology. 2015;25(6):557-66.
20. Amegah AK, Dakuu G, Mudu P, Jaakkola JJ. Particulate matter pollution at traffic hotspots of Accra, Ghana: Levels, exposure experiences of street traders, and associated respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms. Journal of exposure science & environmental epidemiology. 2022;32(2):333-42.
21. Lin B, Agyeman S. Impact of natural gas consumption on sub-Saharan Africa's CO2 emissions: Evidence and policy perspective. Science of The Total Environment. 2021;760:143321.
22. Alam MS, Khan A. The impact study of vehicular pollution on environment. International Journal for Science and Advance Research in Technology. 2020;6(12):30-7.
23. Agbo KE, Walgraeve C, Eze JI, Ugwoke PE, Ukoha PO, Van Langenhove H. A review on ambient and indoor air pollution status in Africa. Atmospheric Pollution Research. 2021;12(2):243-60.
24. Angnunavuri PN, Kuranchie FA, Attiogbe F, Nerquaye-Tetteh EN. The potential of integrating vehicular emissions policy into Ghana’s transport policy for sustainable urban mobility. SN Applied Sciences. 2019;1(10):1201.
25. Safo-Adu G, Attiogbe F, Ofosu FG, Emahi I, Maud LND, Enimil E. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds in Ambient PM2. 5 in the Central Region of Ghana: Molecular Distribution, Origin and Cancer Risk Assessment. Atmospheric Environment. 2024:120973.
26. Safo-Adu G, Attiogbe F, Ofosu FG, Emahi I, Gyampo O, Ahiamadjie H. Assessment of Chemical Composition and Health Implications Associated with PM10 Exposure: A Comparative Study of an Urban Road Intersection and a Wood-Burning Vicinity. Environmental Forensics. 2024:1-15.
27. (GMet) GMA. Ghana Meteorological Agency’s Seasonal Rainfall Forecast for the Major Rainy Seasons, Winneba Accra2022 [Available from: https://www.meteo.gov.gh/.
28. Mudu P, Organization WH. Ambient air pollution and health in Accra, Ghana. 2021.
29. Wang J, Alli AS, Clark SN, Ezzati M, Brauer M, Hughes AF, et al. Inequalities in urban air pollution in sub-Saharan Africa: an empirical modeling of ambient NO and NO2 concentrations in Accra, Ghana. Environmental Research Letters. 2024;19(3):034036.
30. Huntsinger LF. Transportation systems planning. Highway Engineering: Planning, Design, and Operations. 2021;17.
31. Acheampong IK. Assessing the level of particulate matter and carbon monoxide exposure in the Kaase community of Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana. Ghana: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumas, Ghana; 2019.
32. Agency USEP. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM 2024 [Available from: https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/national-ambient-air-quality-standards-naaqs-pm.
33. Uka U, Belford E, Hogarh J. Ambient Air Quality Assessment of Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana. J Ghana Sci Assoc. 2020;19(1):56-62.
34. Nagl C, Spangl W, Buxbaum I. Sampling points for air quality. European Union, Policy Department for Economic SaQoLP; 2019.
35. Zaareer MNM, Mourad A-HI, Darabseh T, Khan SH, Elgendi M. Impact of a vehicle exhaust pipe position on the lift and drag coefficients: 2D and 3D simulations. International Journal of Thermofluids. 2023;18:100321.
36. Chattopadhyay S, Gupta S, Saha RN. Spatial and temporal variation of urban air quality: a GIS approach. Journal of Environmental Protection. 2010;1(03):264.
37. Rao M. HVN:“Air pollution” Tata McGraw Hill Publishing company Ltd. New Delhi. 1989.
38. Jain MK, Saxena N. Air quality assessment along Dhanbad–Jharia road. Environmental monitoring and assessment. 2002;79:239-50.
39. Saikat Banerjee SB, Singh A, Banerjee S. Impact of flyash on foliar chemical and biochemical composition of naturally occurring ground flora and its possible utilization for growing tree crops. 2003.
40. Katoto PD, Byamungu L, Brand AS, Mokaya J, Strijdom H, Goswami N, et al. Ambient air pollution and health in Sub-Saharan Africa: Current evidence, perspectives and a call to action. Environmental research. 2019;173:174-88.
41. Amegah AK, Agyei-Mensah S. Urban air pollution in Sub-Saharan Africa: Time for action. Environmental Pollution. 2017;220:738-43.
42. Bataka H. Globalization and environmental pollution in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Economic Review. 2021;9(1):191-205.
43. Wang J, Alli AS, Clark S, Hughes A, Ezzati M, Beddows A, et al. Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) pollution in the Accra metropolis: Spatiotemporal patterns and the role of meteorology. Science of the Total Environment. 2022;803:149931.
44. Joshua O, Asubiojo O, Oluwole A, Adebiyi F. Measurement and dispersion modelling of vehicular emission pollutants along highway for sustainable environmental quality. Environmental Forensics. 2022;23(3-4):433-43.
45. Irankunda E, Török Z, Mereuță A, Gasore J, Kalisa E, Akimpaye B, et al. The comparison between in-situ monitored data and modelled results of nitrogen dioxide (NO2): case-study, road networks of Kigali city, Rwanda. Heliyon. 2022;8(12).
46. Choudhary A, Gokhale S. On-road measurements and modelling of vehicular emissions during traffic interruption and congestion events in an urban traffic corridor. Atmospheric Pollution Research. 2019;10(2):480-92.
47. Wang Y, Yang L, Han S, Li C, Ramachandra T. Urban CO2 emissions in Xi’an and Bangalore by commuters: implications for controlling urban transportation carbon dioxide emissions in developing countries. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 2017;22:993-1019.
48. Nesamani K. Estimation of automobile emissions and control strategies in India. Science of the Total Environment. 2010;408(8):1800-11.
49. Doumbia M, Kouassi AA, Silué S, Yoboué V, Liousse C, Diedhiou A, et al. Road traffic emission inventory in an urban zone of West Africa: case of Yopougon City (Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire). Energies. 2021;14(4):1111.
50. Muralikrishnan L, Singh OP, Singh R. Impact of Air pollution in South Asian mega cities and mitigation measures.
51. Sadiq AA. Effect of particulate emissions from road transportation vehicles on health of communities in urban and rural areas, Kano State, Nigeria: Université Claude Bernard-Lyon I; 2022.
52. Roomaney R, Cairncross E, Tesfaye M, Kapwata T, Abdelatif N, Olivier C, et al. Estimating the burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution (ambient PM2.5 and ambient ozone) in South Africa for 2000, 2006 and 2012. South African Medical Journal. 2022;112(8b):705-17.
53. Arowosegbe OO, Röösli M, Adebayo-Ojo TC, Dalvie MA, de Hoogh K. Spatial and temporal variations in PM10 concentrations between 2010–2017 in South Africa. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2021;18(24):13348.
54. Nkosi NC, Burger RP, Pauw C, Piketh SJ. The impact of vehicle parameters on non-exhaust traffic road PM10 emissions: A case in South African low-income settlement. Clean Air Journal. 2023;33(2):1-10.
55. Singh A, Gatari MJ, Kidane AW, Alemu ZA, Derrick N, Webster MJ, et al. Air quality assessment in three East African cities using calibrated low-cost sensors with a focus on road-based hotspots. Environmental Research Communications. 2021;3(7):075007.
56. Organization WH. What are the WHO Air quality guidelines? 2021 [Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/what-are-the-who-air-quality-guidelines.
57. Monks PS, Williams ML. What does success look like for air quality policy? A perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 2020;378(2183):20190326.
58. Wilde SE, Padilla LE, Farren NJ, Alvarez RA, Wilson S, Lee JD, et al. Mobile monitoring reveals congestion penalty for vehicle emissions in London. Atmospheric Environment: X. 2024;21:100241.
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| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 10 No 1 (2025): Winter 2025 | |
| Section | Original Research | |
| Keywords | ||
| Air quality; Particulate matter; Exceedance factor; Health risk; Vehicular pollution | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Nkansah F, Belford EJD, Hogarh J, Anim A. Assessment of ambient air quality and health risks from vehicular emissions in urban Ghana: A case study of Winneba. JAPH. 2025;10(1):19-36.
