Risk of developing respiratory symptoms in populations living near artisan brick kilns, El Salvador, 2021-2022
Abstract
Introduction: There are many artisans brick kilns near the communities in Nejapa city. The reported prevalence of respiratory diseases or symptoms in this city is 7.2%. This study aims to determine the relationship between exposure to smoke generated by artisan brick kilns and the presence of respiratory symptoms in residents ≥18 years of age in a gated community in the Nejapa city.
Materials and methods: This is an analytical cross-sectional study that included 46 individuals. Data were collected through an interview form and an observation form. Frequency analysis, association measures, and prevalence ratios were calculated. This study received ethical approval.
Results: Twenty-nine individuals reported respiratory symptoms such as sneezing, itching, and nasal congestion. Twenty-eight people reported experiencing respiratory symptoms. The most frequently reported symptoms were sneezing, nasal itching, nasal congestion, and cough. Daily exposure to smoke from the brick kilns doubled the risk of nasal congestion. Living at 61 m or more from the brick kilns increased the risk of nasal congestion by 3.22 times. Living at a distance between 46 and 60 m from the kilns doubled the risk of coughing.
Conclusion: There is a relationship between the development of respiratory symptoms and daily exposure to smoke generated by artisan brick kilns. The risk of developing symptoms varies depending on the distance between the individual’s residence and the brick kilns.
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26. Ahmed R, Osman N, Noory B, Osman R, El Hassan H, Eltigani H, et al. Prevalence and determinants of chronic respiratory diseases in adults in Sudan. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2023;27(5):373–380. doi:10.5588/ijtld.22.0462
2. Schraufnagel DE, Balmes JR, Cowl CT, De Matteis S, Jung S-H, Mortimer K, et al. Air Pollution and Noncommunicable Diseases. Chest. 2019;155(2):409–416. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2018.10.042
3. Landrigan PJ, Fuller R, Acosta NJR, Adeyi O, Arnold R, Basu NN, et al. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. Lancet Lond. Engl. 2018;391(10119):462–512. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0
4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for Particulate Matter. Washington: Environmental Protection Agency; 2019. p. 1966.
5. Fuller R, Landrigan PJ, Balakrishnan K, Bathan G, Bose-O’Reilly S, Brauer M, et al. Pollution and health: a progress update. Lancet Planet. Health. 2022;6(6):e535–e547. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0
6. Pérez-Morales JG, González-Martínez KI, Negrete-Meza LA, Vázquez-Rodriguez MF, Salinas-Sanchez MA, Ortega-Castellanos M, et al. Evaluation and identification of contaminating processes, sources and routes of exposure in the brick-making areas of Guanajuato. Jovenes en Cienc. 2022;16:1–12.
7. Valdes H, Vilches J, Felmer G, Hurtado M, Figueroa J. Artisan Brick Kilns: State-of-the-Art and Future Trends. Sustainability. 2020;12(18):7724. doi:10.3390/su12187724
8. Sanjel S, Khanal SN, Thygerson SM, Carter WS, Johnston JD, et al. Respiratory symptoms and illnesses related to the concentration of airborne particulate matter among brick kiln workers in Kathmandu valley, Nepal. Ann. Occup. Environ. Med. 2017;29(1):9. doi:10.1186/s40557-017-0165-0
9. Das B. Assessment of respiratory symptoms and lung function values among the brick field workers of West Bengal, India. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health. 2016;71(4):222–230. doi:10.1080/19338244.2015.1067177
10. Annesi-Maesano I, Forastiere F, Balmes J, Garcia E, Harkema J, Holgate S, et al. The clear and persistent impact of air pollution on chronic respiratory diseases: a call for interventions. Eur. Respir. J. 2021;57(3). doi:10.1183/13993003.02981-2020
11. Municipality of Nejapa. Business Report. Transparency Portal [Internet]: Publishing; 2021.
12. Ministry of Health, Epidemiology Department. Epidemiological Bulletin. El Salvador: Ministry of Health; 2020.
13. Ministry of Health. Nejapa Intermediate Family Community Health, Unit Situation Room, 2021. 2021. Ministry of Health [Internet]: Publishing; 2021.
14. Hassan Bhat T, Jiawen G, Farzaneh H. Air Pollution Health Risk Assessment (AP-HRA), Principles and Applications. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health. 2021;18(4):1935. doi:10.3390/ijerph18041935
15. Fasola S, Maio S, Baldacci S, La Grutta S, Ferrante G, Forastiere F, et al. Effects of Particulate Matter on the Incidence of Respiratory Diseases in the Pisan Longitudinal Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health. 2020;17(7):2540. doi:10.3390/ijerph17072540
16. Kim D, Chen Z, Zhou L-F, Huang S-X. Air pollutants and early origins of respiratory diseases. Chronic Dis. Transl. Med. 2018;4(2):75–94. (Special Issue: Air Pollution and Chronic Respiratory Diseases). doi:10.1016/j.cdtm.2018.03.003
17. Ascencio Miranda RM, Martínez Burgos KM del S, Serafín Olivares Y del C. Determination of the environmental contamination emanating from the brick factories and the most frequent diseases in the community of El Cedral, Municipality of Nejapa. [bachelor thesis]. University of El Salvador; 2003
18. Shrestha PM, Humphrey JL, Carlton EJ, Adgate JL, Barton KE, Root ED, et al. Impact of Outdoor Air Pollution on Indoor Air Quality in Low-Income Homes during Wildfire Seasons. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health. 2019;16(19):3535. doi:10.3390/ijerph16193535
19. Zhang N, Nazroo J, Vanhoutte B. The relationship between rural to urban migration in China and risk of depression in later life: An investigation of life course effects. Soc Sci Med. 2021;270:113637. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113637
20. Wildi Mi, Jandres Vásquez M, Santamaría N, Padilla Moreno A, Recinos Paredes G, Ramírez G, et al. Environmental and health risks of pesticides and fertilizers used in El Salvador. Case study of the sugar industry in the Brazo del Río La Paz sub-basin. San Salvador, El Salvador: Salvadoran Ecological Unity Association; 2021. p. 221.
21. Gallegos R. AS, Lang B, Fernández M, Luján M. Atmospheric pollution from brick manufacturing and its possible effects on the health of children in neighboring areas. Acta Nova. 2006;3(2):192–210.
22. León Rivas JD, Matamoro Ruiz WA. Prevalence and risk factors for developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in artisanal brick makers of La Paz Centro. [Medical Thesis]. 2017.
23. Torres-Duque CA, García-Rodriguez MC, González-García M. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease due to wood smoke: a different phenotype or a distinct entity? Arch. Bronconeumol. 2016;52(8):425–431. doi:10.1016/j.arbres.2016.04.004
24. Karaoğlanoğlu S. Chapter 6. Geriatry and Lung Health. Atakan Savrun and Şeyda Tuba Savrun Ed. Approach to the geriatric patients. 1st ed. Ankara, Turquía. Iksad Publications. 2022. 262 p.
25. Tran D, Rajwani K, Berlin DA. Pulmonary effects of aging. Curr. Opin. Anaesthesiol. 2018;31(1):19–23.
26. Ahmed R, Osman N, Noory B, Osman R, El Hassan H, Eltigani H, et al. Prevalence and determinants of chronic respiratory diseases in adults in Sudan. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2023;27(5):373–380. doi:10.5588/ijtld.22.0462
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 10 No 1 (2025): Winter 2025 | |
| Section | Original Research | |
| Keywords | ||
| Respiratory diseases; Cough; Air pollution; Environmental pollution; El Salvador | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Hernández L, Rodríguez G, González W, Quinteros E. Risk of developing respiratory symptoms in populations living near artisan brick kilns, El Salvador, 2021-2022. JAPH. 2025;10(1):83-92.
