Assessment of traffic-related PAH in various environmental components and its associated health risk at a highway Toll Plaza
,
Abstract
Introduction: This study investigated Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions from road traffic at the Surathkal toll plaza, in Karnataka, India. It focuses on two phases: when the toll station operated (Phase 1: January 2020 – March 2020) and when it was inactive (Phase 2: January 2023 – March 2023).
Materials and methods: The research examines Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) concentration, its elemental analysis, and various PAH concentrations in it during both phases. Ultrasonic extraction and Gas Chromatography (GC) analysis were used to study 16 priority PAHs recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA), identifying eight in samples like SPM, soot, and green leaves. Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrophotometer (ICPOES) analysed 14 elements in SPM.
Results: Results revealed higher PAH concentration during Phase 2, indicating that the presence of toll structure negatively affects air quality even when inactive. In contrast, SPM and its elements had higher mean concentrations during Phase 1, suggesting an inverse relationship between SPM and PAH levels. PAH diagnostic ratios showed different sources for each phase, including gasoline, diesel, fossil fuel, coal/biomass, and pyrogenic sources. Comprehensive health risk assessment using BaP equivalent concentration (BaPeq) to estimate Inhalation Life-time Cancer Risk (ILCR), revealed an increased risk during both phases (0.045 during Phase 1 and 0.134 during Phase 2), higher than acceptable risk level (1×10-6).
Conclusion: This research underscores the toll plaza's significant influence on air quality and calls for the development of mitigation measures.
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8. Kamal A, Cincinelli A, Martellini T, Malik RN. Linking mobile source-PAHs and biological effects in traffic police officers and drivers in Rawalpindi (Pakistan). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2016;127:135–143. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.01.006
9. Gupta S, Kumar K, Srivastava A, Srivastava A, Jain VK. Size distribution and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in aerosol particle samples from the atmospheric environment of Delhi, India. Science of the Total Environment. 2011;409(22):4674–4680. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.08.008
10. Wnorowski A, Harnish D, Jiang Y, Celo V, Dabek-Zlotorzynska E, Charland JP. Assessment and Characterization of Alkylated PAHs in Selected Sites across Canada. Atmosphere. 2022;13(1320):1–16. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081320
11. McGrath JA, Joshua N, Bess AS, Parkerton TF. Review of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Benthic Life. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 2019;15(4):505–518. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4142
12. Borrás E, Tortajada-Genaro LA, Vázquez M, Zielinska B. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exhaust emissions from different reformulated diesel fuels and engine operating conditions. Atmospheric Environment. 2009;43(37):5944–5952.
13. Pedersen PS, Ingwersen J, Nielsen T, Larsen E. Effects of Fuel, Lubricant, and Engine Operating Parameters on the Emission of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Environmental Science and Technology. 1980;14(1):71–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1021/es60161a011
14. Bari CS, Navandar Y V., Dhamaniya A. Vehicular Emission Modeling at Toll Plaza Using Performance Box Data [Internet]. Vol. 24, Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste. 2020 Oct 1;24(4):05020003. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000550
15. Nazneen, Patra AK, Kolluru SSR, Dubey R, Kumar S. Occupational exposure to respirable and diesel particulate matter at a highway toll station in India. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2023;21(1):341–358. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-023-04853-5
16. Karjalainen P, Pirjola L, Heikkilä J, Lähde T, Tzamkiozis T, Ntziachristos L, et al. Exhaust particles of modern gasoline vehicles: A laboratory and an on-road study. Atmospheric Environment. 2014;97:262–270. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.08.025
17. Coelho MC, Farias TL, Rouphail NM. Measuring and Modeling Emission Effects for Toll Facilities. Transportation Research Record 1941. 2005;136–44.
18. Millo F, Vlachos T, Piano A. Physicochemical and mutagenic analysis of particulate matter emissions from an automotive diesel engine fuelled with fossil and biofuel blends. Fuel. 2021;285:1–10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119092
19. Matti Maricq M. Chemical characterization of particulate emissions from diesel engines: A review. Journal of Aerosol Science. 2007;38(11):1079–1118. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaerosci.2007.08.001
20. Karavalakis G, Short D, Vu D, Villela M, Asa-awuku A, Durbin TD. Evaluating the regulated emissions , air toxics , ultrafine particles , and black carbon from SI-PFI and SI-DI vehicles operating on different ethanol and iso-butanol blends. FUEL. 2014;128:410–421. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.03.016
21. Blanquart G, Pitsch H. Thermochemical properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from G3MP2B3 calculations. 5th US Combustion Meeting 2007. 2007;6:3764–3783.
22. Zhang Q, Gao M, Sun X, Wang Y, Yuan C, Sun H. Nationwide distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil of China and the association with bacterial community. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2023;128:1–11. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2022.07.026
23. Wang W, Massey Simonich SL, Xue M, Zhao J, Zhang N, Wang R, et al. Concentrations, sources and spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils from Beijing, Tianjin and surrounding areas, North China. Environmental Pollution. 2010;158(5):1245–1251. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.01.021
24. Cheruyiot NK, Lee WJ, Mwangi JK, Wang LC, Lin NH, Lin YC, et al. An overview: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from the stationary and mobile sources and in the ambient air. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2015;15(7):2730–2762. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2015.11.0627
25. Phan Thi LA, Ngoc NT, Quynh NT, Thanh N Van, Kim TT, Anh DH, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in dry tea leaves and tea infusions in Vietnam: contamination levels and dietary risk assessment. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 2020;42(9):2853–2863. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00524-3
26. Agudelo-Castañeda D, Teixeira E, Schneider I, Lara SR, Silva LFO. Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in atmospheric PM1.0 of urban environments: Carcinogenic and mutagenic respiratory health risk by age groups. Environmental Pollution. 2017;224:158–170. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.01.075
27. Dzier K, Popek R, Gawro H. Deposition of Particulate Matter of Different Size Fractions on Leaf Surfaces and in Waxes of Urban Forest Species. International Journal of Phytoremediation. 2011;13:1037–1046.
28. Peng C, Ouyang Z, Wang M, Chen W, Jiao W. Vegetative cover and PAHs accumulation in soils of urban green space. Environmental Pollution. 2012;161:36–42. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.09.027
29. CPCB. Indian Standard Methods for measurment air pollution part 4 suspended-particulate matter. 1999. Available from: https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S02/is.5182.04.1999.pdf
30. USEPA. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Toxic Organic Compounds in Ambient Air. In: Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Ambient Air Using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). 1999. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/amtic/compendium-methods-determination-toxic-organic-compounds-ambient-air
31. U.S. EPA. Compendium Method IO-3.1: Selection, preparation and extraction of filter material [Internet]. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Inorganic Compounds in Ambient Air EPA/625/R-96/010a Compendium Method IO-3.1 SELECTION,. 1999. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-07/documents/epa-io-3.1.pdf
32. U.S. EPA. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Inorganic Compounds in Ambient Air. Determination of metals in ambient particulate matter using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy. 1999. Available from: http://www3.epa.gov/ttnamti1/files/ambient/inorganic/mthd-3-3.pdf
33. CPCB. Indian Standard method for measurment of air pollution part 12 polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air p-articulate matter. 2004. Available from: https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S02/is.5182.12.2004.pdf
34. Khan ZA, Hellier P, Ladommatos N. Measurement of soot mass and PAHs during the pyrolysis of C2–C4 alcohols at high temperatures. Combustion and Flame. 2022;236:1–15. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2021.111803
35. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Quality Assurance Systems Pollution Measurement Handbook for Air Volume. Vol. II. 2017. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2020-10/documents/final_handbook_document_1_17.pdf
36. Fasani D, Fermo P, Barroso PJ, Martín J, Santos JL, Aparicio I, et al. Analytical Method for Biomonitoring of PAH Using Leaves of Bitter Orange Trees (Citrus aurantium): a Case Study in South Spain. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution [Internet]. 2016;360:1–11. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-016-3056-z
37. Ravindra K, Sokhi R, Van Grieken R. Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmospheric Environment. 2008;42(13):2895–921. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.12.010
38. WHO. Air quality guidelines for Europe ; second edition. 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289013581
39. Yin H, Xu L. Comparative study of PM10/PM2.5-bound PAHs in downtown Beijing, China: Concentrations, sources, and health risks. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;177:674–83. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.263
40. Yang L, Zhang X, Xing W, Zhou Q, Zhang L, Wu Q, et al. Yearly variation in characteristics and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitro-PAHs in urban shanghai from 2010–2018. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China). 2021;99:72–79. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2020.06.017
41. Ali M, Athar M. Air pollution due to traffic, air quality monitoring along three sections of National Highway N-5, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2008;136(1–3):219–26. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9677-3
42. Pant P, Harrison RM. Estimation of the contribution of road traffic emissions to particulate matter concentrations from field measurements: A review. Atmospheric Environment. 2013;77:78–97. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.04.028
43. Ceratti AM, Marques G, Alves DD, Cansi M, Hansen J, Brochier F, et al. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in Atmospheric of the Environmental Scenario in Urban Areas. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 2021;232(30):1–17. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-04967-3
44. Teixeira EC, Mattiuzi CDP, Agudelo-Castañeda DM, De Oliveira Garcia K, Wiegand F. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons study in atmospheric fine and coarse particles using diagnostic ratios and receptor model in urban/industrial region. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2013;185(11):9587–9602. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3276-2
45. Gunawardena J, Egodawatta P, Ayoko GA, Goonetilleke A. Role of traffic in atmospheric accumulation of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Atmospheric Environment. 2012;54:502–510. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.02.058
46. Rafaela P, Lucio S, Ferreira F, Perin E, Mirna M, Farias F De, et al. Traffic-related polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) occurrence in a tropical environment. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 2021;43(11):4577–4587. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00947-6
47. Barreca S, Bastone S, Caponetti E, Martino DFC, Orecchio S. Determination of selected polyaromatic hydrocarbons by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the analysis of wood to establish the cause of sinking of an old vessel (Scauri wreck) by fire. Microchemical Journal. 2014;117:116–121. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2014.06.020
2. Liu Q, Weng J, Li C, Feng Y, Xie M, Wang X, et al. Attenuation of PM2.5-induced alveolar epithelial cells and lung injury through regulation of mitochondrial fission and fusion. Particle and Fibre Toxicology. 2023;20(1):28.
3. Hayakawa K, Tang N, Nagato EG, Toriba A, Sakai S, Kano F, et al. Long term trends in atmospheric concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A study of Japanese cities from 1997 to 2014. Environmental Pollution. 2018;233:474–482. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.038
4. Nowakowski M, Rykowska I, Wolski R, Andrzejewski P. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their Derivatives (O-PAHs, N-PAHs, OH-PAHs): Determination in Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) – a Review. Environmental Processes [Internet]. 2022;9(1):2. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-021-00555-7
5. Tuerxunbieke A, Xu X, Pei W, Qi L, Qin N, Duan X. Development of Phase and Seasonally Dependent Land-Use Regression Models to Predict Atmospheric PAH Levels. Toxics. 2023;11(316):1–15. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11040316
6. Azhari A. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) in air and vegetation: Case study at three selected toll stations along north south expressway in Johor, Malaysia (Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia). 2012.
7. Jang E, Alam MS, Harrison RM. Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air using positive matrix factorization and spatial distribution analysis. Atospheric Environment. 2013;79:271–285. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.056
8. Kamal A, Cincinelli A, Martellini T, Malik RN. Linking mobile source-PAHs and biological effects in traffic police officers and drivers in Rawalpindi (Pakistan). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2016;127:135–143. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.01.006
9. Gupta S, Kumar K, Srivastava A, Srivastava A, Jain VK. Size distribution and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in aerosol particle samples from the atmospheric environment of Delhi, India. Science of the Total Environment. 2011;409(22):4674–4680. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.08.008
10. Wnorowski A, Harnish D, Jiang Y, Celo V, Dabek-Zlotorzynska E, Charland JP. Assessment and Characterization of Alkylated PAHs in Selected Sites across Canada. Atmosphere. 2022;13(1320):1–16. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081320
11. McGrath JA, Joshua N, Bess AS, Parkerton TF. Review of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Benthic Life. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 2019;15(4):505–518. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4142
12. Borrás E, Tortajada-Genaro LA, Vázquez M, Zielinska B. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exhaust emissions from different reformulated diesel fuels and engine operating conditions. Atmospheric Environment. 2009;43(37):5944–5952.
13. Pedersen PS, Ingwersen J, Nielsen T, Larsen E. Effects of Fuel, Lubricant, and Engine Operating Parameters on the Emission of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Environmental Science and Technology. 1980;14(1):71–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1021/es60161a011
14. Bari CS, Navandar Y V., Dhamaniya A. Vehicular Emission Modeling at Toll Plaza Using Performance Box Data [Internet]. Vol. 24, Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste. 2020 Oct 1;24(4):05020003. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000550
15. Nazneen, Patra AK, Kolluru SSR, Dubey R, Kumar S. Occupational exposure to respirable and diesel particulate matter at a highway toll station in India. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2023;21(1):341–358. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-023-04853-5
16. Karjalainen P, Pirjola L, Heikkilä J, Lähde T, Tzamkiozis T, Ntziachristos L, et al. Exhaust particles of modern gasoline vehicles: A laboratory and an on-road study. Atmospheric Environment. 2014;97:262–270. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.08.025
17. Coelho MC, Farias TL, Rouphail NM. Measuring and Modeling Emission Effects for Toll Facilities. Transportation Research Record 1941. 2005;136–44.
18. Millo F, Vlachos T, Piano A. Physicochemical and mutagenic analysis of particulate matter emissions from an automotive diesel engine fuelled with fossil and biofuel blends. Fuel. 2021;285:1–10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119092
19. Matti Maricq M. Chemical characterization of particulate emissions from diesel engines: A review. Journal of Aerosol Science. 2007;38(11):1079–1118. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaerosci.2007.08.001
20. Karavalakis G, Short D, Vu D, Villela M, Asa-awuku A, Durbin TD. Evaluating the regulated emissions , air toxics , ultrafine particles , and black carbon from SI-PFI and SI-DI vehicles operating on different ethanol and iso-butanol blends. FUEL. 2014;128:410–421. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.03.016
21. Blanquart G, Pitsch H. Thermochemical properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from G3MP2B3 calculations. 5th US Combustion Meeting 2007. 2007;6:3764–3783.
22. Zhang Q, Gao M, Sun X, Wang Y, Yuan C, Sun H. Nationwide distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil of China and the association with bacterial community. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2023;128:1–11. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2022.07.026
23. Wang W, Massey Simonich SL, Xue M, Zhao J, Zhang N, Wang R, et al. Concentrations, sources and spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils from Beijing, Tianjin and surrounding areas, North China. Environmental Pollution. 2010;158(5):1245–1251. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.01.021
24. Cheruyiot NK, Lee WJ, Mwangi JK, Wang LC, Lin NH, Lin YC, et al. An overview: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from the stationary and mobile sources and in the ambient air. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2015;15(7):2730–2762. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2015.11.0627
25. Phan Thi LA, Ngoc NT, Quynh NT, Thanh N Van, Kim TT, Anh DH, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in dry tea leaves and tea infusions in Vietnam: contamination levels and dietary risk assessment. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 2020;42(9):2853–2863. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00524-3
26. Agudelo-Castañeda D, Teixeira E, Schneider I, Lara SR, Silva LFO. Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in atmospheric PM1.0 of urban environments: Carcinogenic and mutagenic respiratory health risk by age groups. Environmental Pollution. 2017;224:158–170. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.01.075
27. Dzier K, Popek R, Gawro H. Deposition of Particulate Matter of Different Size Fractions on Leaf Surfaces and in Waxes of Urban Forest Species. International Journal of Phytoremediation. 2011;13:1037–1046.
28. Peng C, Ouyang Z, Wang M, Chen W, Jiao W. Vegetative cover and PAHs accumulation in soils of urban green space. Environmental Pollution. 2012;161:36–42. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.09.027
29. CPCB. Indian Standard Methods for measurment air pollution part 4 suspended-particulate matter. 1999. Available from: https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S02/is.5182.04.1999.pdf
30. USEPA. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Toxic Organic Compounds in Ambient Air. In: Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Ambient Air Using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). 1999. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/amtic/compendium-methods-determination-toxic-organic-compounds-ambient-air
31. U.S. EPA. Compendium Method IO-3.1: Selection, preparation and extraction of filter material [Internet]. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Inorganic Compounds in Ambient Air EPA/625/R-96/010a Compendium Method IO-3.1 SELECTION,. 1999. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-07/documents/epa-io-3.1.pdf
32. U.S. EPA. Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Inorganic Compounds in Ambient Air. Determination of metals in ambient particulate matter using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy. 1999. Available from: http://www3.epa.gov/ttnamti1/files/ambient/inorganic/mthd-3-3.pdf
33. CPCB. Indian Standard method for measurment of air pollution part 12 polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air p-articulate matter. 2004. Available from: https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S02/is.5182.12.2004.pdf
34. Khan ZA, Hellier P, Ladommatos N. Measurement of soot mass and PAHs during the pyrolysis of C2–C4 alcohols at high temperatures. Combustion and Flame. 2022;236:1–15. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2021.111803
35. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Quality Assurance Systems Pollution Measurement Handbook for Air Volume. Vol. II. 2017. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2020-10/documents/final_handbook_document_1_17.pdf
36. Fasani D, Fermo P, Barroso PJ, Martín J, Santos JL, Aparicio I, et al. Analytical Method for Biomonitoring of PAH Using Leaves of Bitter Orange Trees (Citrus aurantium): a Case Study in South Spain. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution [Internet]. 2016;360:1–11. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-016-3056-z
37. Ravindra K, Sokhi R, Van Grieken R. Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmospheric Environment. 2008;42(13):2895–921. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.12.010
38. WHO. Air quality guidelines for Europe ; second edition. 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789289013581
39. Yin H, Xu L. Comparative study of PM10/PM2.5-bound PAHs in downtown Beijing, China: Concentrations, sources, and health risks. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;177:674–83. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.263
40. Yang L, Zhang X, Xing W, Zhou Q, Zhang L, Wu Q, et al. Yearly variation in characteristics and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitro-PAHs in urban shanghai from 2010–2018. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China). 2021;99:72–79. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2020.06.017
41. Ali M, Athar M. Air pollution due to traffic, air quality monitoring along three sections of National Highway N-5, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2008;136(1–3):219–26. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9677-3
42. Pant P, Harrison RM. Estimation of the contribution of road traffic emissions to particulate matter concentrations from field measurements: A review. Atmospheric Environment. 2013;77:78–97. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.04.028
43. Ceratti AM, Marques G, Alves DD, Cansi M, Hansen J, Brochier F, et al. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in Atmospheric of the Environmental Scenario in Urban Areas. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 2021;232(30):1–17. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-04967-3
44. Teixeira EC, Mattiuzi CDP, Agudelo-Castañeda DM, De Oliveira Garcia K, Wiegand F. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons study in atmospheric fine and coarse particles using diagnostic ratios and receptor model in urban/industrial region. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2013;185(11):9587–9602. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3276-2
45. Gunawardena J, Egodawatta P, Ayoko GA, Goonetilleke A. Role of traffic in atmospheric accumulation of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Atmospheric Environment. 2012;54:502–510. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.02.058
46. Rafaela P, Lucio S, Ferreira F, Perin E, Mirna M, Farias F De, et al. Traffic-related polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) occurrence in a tropical environment. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 2021;43(11):4577–4587. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00947-6
47. Barreca S, Bastone S, Caponetti E, Martino DFC, Orecchio S. Determination of selected polyaromatic hydrocarbons by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the analysis of wood to establish the cause of sinking of an old vessel (Scauri wreck) by fire. Microchemical Journal. 2014;117:116–121. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2014.06.020
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 9 No 2 (2024): Spring 2024 | |
| Section | Original Research | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/japh.v9i2.15925 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH); Toll structure; Soot; Suspended particulate matter; Green plants | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Charly T, Manu B, Mulangi R. Assessment of traffic-related PAH in various environmental components and its associated health risk at a highway Toll Plaza. JAPH. 2024;9(2):205-224.
