Effects of spray air fresheners and scented candle exposure on air quality, growth, and locomotor activity in rats
,
Abstract
Introduction: Air fresheners and scented candles release harmful chemicals indoors, potentially posing health risks with prolonged exposure.
Materials and methods: This study investigated the effects of inhaling emissions from these products on growth and locomotor activity in rats. Forty rats (180–200g) were randomly assigned to four groups: air freshener (A), scented candle (B), combined exposure (D), and control (C). Exposures were conducted in a controlled inhalation chamber for 10, 20, and 30 days (1 h/day), with 15 min of direct exposure. Environmental parameters (Particulate Matter (PM2.5, PM10), Total Volatile Organic Compounds (TVOCs), Formaldehyde (HCHO), temperature, and humidity) were monitored at three time intervals: 0–15 min (emission), 15–30 min (without emission), and 30–60 min (without emission), using a portable monitoring device.
Results: Significant increases (P≤0.05) in PM2.5, PM10, TVOC, and HCHO were observed in group D compared to other groups. Rats in group D showed reduced growth rate and locomotor activity.
Conclusion: These findings suggest that combined exposure worsens indoor air quality and may impair physiological and behavioral health.
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4. Hammod NM, Al-Janabi KWS, Hasan SA. Determination of some volatile organic compounds in the water produced at Al-Ahdab oilfield in the Governorate of Wasit, Iraq using Headspace SPE-GC-FID. Indian J Forensic Med Toxicol. 2020;14(1):994–999.
5. Petry T, Vitale D, Joachim FJ, Smith B, Cruse L, Mascarenhas R, Singal M. Human health risk evaluation of selected VOC, SVOC and particulate emissions from scented candles. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2014;69(1):55–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.02.010
6. Steinemann A. Volatile emissions from common consumer products. Air Qual Atmos Health. 2015;8(3):273–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-015-0327-6
7. Khanjer EF, Yosif MA, Sultan MA. Air quality over Baghdad City using ground and aircraft measurements. Iraqi J Sci. 2015;56(1C):839–845.
8. Goodman NB, Steinemann A, Wheeler AJ, Paevere PJ, Cheng M, Brown SK. Volatile organic compounds within indoor environments in Australia. Build Environ. 2017;122:116–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.05.033
9. McDonald BC, De Gouw JA, Gilman JB, Jathar SH, Akherati A, Cappa CD, Trainer M. Volatile chemical products emerging as largest petrochemical source of urban organic emissions. Science. 2018;359(6377):760–764. https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aaq0524
10. Singh A, Kumari A, Fatima L. Beyond aromatherapy: Illuminating the underappreciated risks associated with scented candle exposure. Environ Sci Technol. 2023;57(41):15299–15300. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c07574
11. Kadhem SA, Rabee AM. Study of some immunological parameters for exposure to particulate matter in the population of Baghdad. Plant Arch. 2020;20:875–880.
12. Aldeen SAE, Fleeh NAR. Investigating the air quality index inside two museums in Baghdad City. Iraqi J Sci. 2025.
13. Skovmand A, Gouveia ACD, Koponen IK, Møller P, Loft S, Roursgaard M. Lung inflammation and genotoxicity in mice lungs after pulmonary exposure to candle light combustion particles. Toxicol Lett. 2017;276:31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.04.015
14. Kim JH, Lee D, Lim H, Kim T, Suk K, Seo J. Risk assessment to human health: Consumer exposure to ingredients in air fresheners. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2018;98:31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.05.015
15. Mohammed B, & Yakasai UA. Subacute toxicity study of some brands of air fresheners sold in Kano on Swiss albino rats (Rattus norvegicus). Intl J Adv Acad Res| Sci, Technol & Engineer. 2017; 3, 19-32.
16. Ueno H, Shimada A, Suemitsu S, Murakami S, Kitamura N, Wani K, & Ishihara T. Comprehensive behavioral study of the effects of vanillin inhalation in mice. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 2019; 115, 108879.
17. Hinners RG, Burkart JK, Contner GL. Animal exposure chambers in air pollution studies. Arch Environ Health. 1966;13(5):609–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/00039896.1966.10664626
18. Brown RE, Corey SC, Moore AK. Differences in measures of exploration and fear in MHC-congenic C57BL/6J and B6-H-2K mice. Behav Genet. 1999;29:263–271.
19. Prut L, & Belzung C. The open field as a paradigm to measure the effects of drugs on anxiety-like behaviors: a review. European journal of pharmacology. 2003; 463(1-3), 3-33.
20. Adjene J, Abudu E. Effects of Phyllantus amarus administration on the open field locomotor activities in adult Wistar rats. Int J Biomed Health Sci. 2009;5(3):125–132.
21. Iranloye BO, Bolarinwa AF. Effect of nicotine administration on weight and histology of some vital visceral organs in female albino rats. Niger J Physiol Sci. 2009;24(1). https://www.ajol.info/index.php/njps/article/view/46374
22. SPSS. Statistical Packages of Social Sciences – SPSS/IBM Statistics 26 Step by Step. 16th ed. 2019. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429056765
23. Khamees AB, Nassir ST, Heni KS. Analytical study of climate changes effect on wind speed in Al-Nasiriya, Iraq. Iraqi J Sci. 2018;59(2B):980–985. https://www.ijs.uobaghdad.edu.iq/index.php/eijs/article/view/177
24. Vardoulakis S, Giagloglou E, Steinle S, Davis A, Sleeuwenhoek A, Galea KS, Crawford JO. Indoor exposure to selected air pollutants in the home environment: A systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(23):8972. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238972
25. Ahmmad SNZ, Mokhtar MT, Muchtar F, Singh PK. Implementation of automated aroma therapy candle process planting using IoT and WSN. In: Handbook of Wireless Sensor Networks: Issues and Challenges in Current Scenario's. 2020. p. 520–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40305-8_25
26. Lee M, Lee S, Park J, Yoon C. Effect of spraying air freshener on particulate and volatile organic compounds in vehicles. Sci Total Environ. 2024;916:170192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170192
27. World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines for indoor air quality: Selected pollutants. Geneva: WHO; 2010.
28. Arin IA, Ramadhan A, Abdurachman E, Trisetyarso A, Zarlis M. Air quality analysis of the capital city in developing countries during COVID-19 emergency care based on Internet of Things data. Iraqi J Sci. 2024;65(1):414–430. https://doi.org/10.24996/ijs.2024.65.1.34
29. Cocârţă DM, Prodana M, Demetrescu I, Lungu PEM, Didilescu AC. Indoor air pollution with fine particles and implications for workers’ health in dental offices: A brief review. Sustainability. 2021;13(2):599. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020599
30. Shehab MA, Pope FD. Effects of short-term exposure to particulate matter air pollution on cognitive performance. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):8237. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44561-0
31. Wei S, Semple S. Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from non-tobacco sources in homes within high-income countries: A systematic review. Air Qual Atmos Health. 2023;16(3):553–566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-022-01288-8
32. Yun H, Seo JH, Kim YG, Yang J. Impact of scented candle use on indoor air quality and airborne microbiome. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):10181. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-95010-0
33. Lim YH, Hersoug LG, Lund R, Bruunsgaard H, Ketzel M, Brandt J, Loft S. Inflammatory markers and lung function in relation to indoor and ambient air pollution. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2022;241:113944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.113944
34. Jadach CM. Consumer choice and indoor air quality [B.S. honors thesis]. Portland State University; 2025.
35. Zemitis J, Borodinecs A, Lauberts A. Ventilation impact on VOC concentration caused by building materials. Mag Civ Eng. 2018;8(84):130–139.
36. Liu J, Jiang J, Ding X, Patra SS, Cross JN, Huang C, Jung N. Real-time evaluation of terpene emissions and exposures during the use of scented wax products in residential buildings with PTR-TOF-MS. Build Environ. 2024;255:111314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111314
37. Trantallidi M, Dimitroulopoulou C, Wolkoff P, Kephalopoulos S, Carrer P. EPHECT III: Health risk assessment of exposure to household consumer products. Sci Total Environ. 2015;536:903–913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.05.123
38. Adeniran JA, Yusuf RO, Mustapha SI, Sonibare JA. Exposure to total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) from household spray products. Environ Res Eng Manag. 2017;73(4):21–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.73.4.19316
39. Harding-Smith E, Shaw DR, Shaw M, Dillon TJ, Carslaw N. Does green mean clean? Volatile organic emissions from regular versus green cleaning products. Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2024;26(2):436–450. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3em00439b
40. Madureira J, Paciência I, Rufo J, Ramos E, Barros H, Teixeira JP, de Oliveira Fernandes E. Indoor air quality in schools and its relationship with children's respiratory symptoms. Atmos Environ. 2015;118:145–156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.07.028
41. Ahn JH, Kim KH, Kim YH, Kim BW. Characterization of hazardous and odorous volatiles emitted from scented candles before lighting and when lit. J Hazard Mater. 2015;286:242–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.12.040
42. Solal C, Rousselle C, Mandin C, Manel J, Maupetit F. VOCs and formaldehyde emissions from cleaning products and air fresheners. In: 11th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate (Indoor Air 2008). 2008 Aug. https://ineris.hal.science/ineris-00973310v1
43. Larpruenrudee P, Surawski NC, Islam MS. The effect of metro construction on the air quality in the railway transport system of Sydney, Australia. Atmosphere. 2022;13(5):759. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13050759
44. Airaodion AI, Olawoyin DS, Alabi OJ, Atiba FA, Ogbuagu EO. Air freshener-induced oxidative stress and its adverse effects on immunity. Int J Health Saf Environ. 2020;6(5):579–587.
45. Akingbade AM, Ojewale AO, Idhirhi A, Olasehinde OR, Ibitoye OB, Aladeyelu SO. Testiculotoxicity activities of isopropyl alcohol-based air freshener on the testis of adult Wistar rats. J Mol Pathophysiol. 2017;6(2):17–23.
46. Hur MH, Kim C, Kim CH, Ahn HC, Ahn HY. The effects of inhalation of essential oils on the body weight, food efficiency rate and serum leptin of growing SD rats. J Korean Acad Nurs. 2006;36(2):236–243. https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2006.36.2.236
47. Umukoro S, Apara M, Ben-Azu B, Ajayi AM, Aderibigbe AO. Neurobehavioral effects of prolonged exposure to solid air freshener in mice. Iran J Toxicol. 2019;13(3):45–51. http://ijt.arakmu.ac.ir/article-1-754-en.html
48. Karr G, Quivet E, Ramel M, Nicolas M. Sprays and diffusers as indoor air fresheners: Exposure and health risk assessment based on measurements under realistic indoor conditions. Indoor Air. 2022;32(1):e12923. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12923
49. Chandrasekaran VRM, Periasamy S, Chien SP, Tseng CH, Tsai PJ, Liu MY. Physical and psychological stress along with candle fumes induced cardiopulmonary injury mimicking restaurant kitchen workers. Curr Res Toxicol. 2021;2:246–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crtox.2021.07.001
50. Wu T, Müller T, Wang N, Byron J, Langer S, Williams J, Licina D. Indoor Emission, Oxidation, and New Particle Formation of Personal Care Product Related Volatile Organic Compounds. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 2024; 11(10), 1053-1061.
2. Steinemann A. International prevalence of fragrance sensitivity. Air Qual Atmos Health. 2019;12(8):891–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-019-00699-4
3. Steinemann A. Ten questions concerning air fresheners and indoor built environments. Build Environ. 2017;111:279–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.11.009
4. Hammod NM, Al-Janabi KWS, Hasan SA. Determination of some volatile organic compounds in the water produced at Al-Ahdab oilfield in the Governorate of Wasit, Iraq using Headspace SPE-GC-FID. Indian J Forensic Med Toxicol. 2020;14(1):994–999.
5. Petry T, Vitale D, Joachim FJ, Smith B, Cruse L, Mascarenhas R, Singal M. Human health risk evaluation of selected VOC, SVOC and particulate emissions from scented candles. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2014;69(1):55–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.02.010
6. Steinemann A. Volatile emissions from common consumer products. Air Qual Atmos Health. 2015;8(3):273–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-015-0327-6
7. Khanjer EF, Yosif MA, Sultan MA. Air quality over Baghdad City using ground and aircraft measurements. Iraqi J Sci. 2015;56(1C):839–845.
8. Goodman NB, Steinemann A, Wheeler AJ, Paevere PJ, Cheng M, Brown SK. Volatile organic compounds within indoor environments in Australia. Build Environ. 2017;122:116–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.05.033
9. McDonald BC, De Gouw JA, Gilman JB, Jathar SH, Akherati A, Cappa CD, Trainer M. Volatile chemical products emerging as largest petrochemical source of urban organic emissions. Science. 2018;359(6377):760–764. https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aaq0524
10. Singh A, Kumari A, Fatima L. Beyond aromatherapy: Illuminating the underappreciated risks associated with scented candle exposure. Environ Sci Technol. 2023;57(41):15299–15300. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c07574
11. Kadhem SA, Rabee AM. Study of some immunological parameters for exposure to particulate matter in the population of Baghdad. Plant Arch. 2020;20:875–880.
12. Aldeen SAE, Fleeh NAR. Investigating the air quality index inside two museums in Baghdad City. Iraqi J Sci. 2025.
13. Skovmand A, Gouveia ACD, Koponen IK, Møller P, Loft S, Roursgaard M. Lung inflammation and genotoxicity in mice lungs after pulmonary exposure to candle light combustion particles. Toxicol Lett. 2017;276:31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.04.015
14. Kim JH, Lee D, Lim H, Kim T, Suk K, Seo J. Risk assessment to human health: Consumer exposure to ingredients in air fresheners. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2018;98:31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.05.015
15. Mohammed B, & Yakasai UA. Subacute toxicity study of some brands of air fresheners sold in Kano on Swiss albino rats (Rattus norvegicus). Intl J Adv Acad Res| Sci, Technol & Engineer. 2017; 3, 19-32.
16. Ueno H, Shimada A, Suemitsu S, Murakami S, Kitamura N, Wani K, & Ishihara T. Comprehensive behavioral study of the effects of vanillin inhalation in mice. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 2019; 115, 108879.
17. Hinners RG, Burkart JK, Contner GL. Animal exposure chambers in air pollution studies. Arch Environ Health. 1966;13(5):609–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/00039896.1966.10664626
18. Brown RE, Corey SC, Moore AK. Differences in measures of exploration and fear in MHC-congenic C57BL/6J and B6-H-2K mice. Behav Genet. 1999;29:263–271.
19. Prut L, & Belzung C. The open field as a paradigm to measure the effects of drugs on anxiety-like behaviors: a review. European journal of pharmacology. 2003; 463(1-3), 3-33.
20. Adjene J, Abudu E. Effects of Phyllantus amarus administration on the open field locomotor activities in adult Wistar rats. Int J Biomed Health Sci. 2009;5(3):125–132.
21. Iranloye BO, Bolarinwa AF. Effect of nicotine administration on weight and histology of some vital visceral organs in female albino rats. Niger J Physiol Sci. 2009;24(1). https://www.ajol.info/index.php/njps/article/view/46374
22. SPSS. Statistical Packages of Social Sciences – SPSS/IBM Statistics 26 Step by Step. 16th ed. 2019. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429056765
23. Khamees AB, Nassir ST, Heni KS. Analytical study of climate changes effect on wind speed in Al-Nasiriya, Iraq. Iraqi J Sci. 2018;59(2B):980–985. https://www.ijs.uobaghdad.edu.iq/index.php/eijs/article/view/177
24. Vardoulakis S, Giagloglou E, Steinle S, Davis A, Sleeuwenhoek A, Galea KS, Crawford JO. Indoor exposure to selected air pollutants in the home environment: A systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(23):8972. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238972
25. Ahmmad SNZ, Mokhtar MT, Muchtar F, Singh PK. Implementation of automated aroma therapy candle process planting using IoT and WSN. In: Handbook of Wireless Sensor Networks: Issues and Challenges in Current Scenario's. 2020. p. 520–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40305-8_25
26. Lee M, Lee S, Park J, Yoon C. Effect of spraying air freshener on particulate and volatile organic compounds in vehicles. Sci Total Environ. 2024;916:170192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170192
27. World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines for indoor air quality: Selected pollutants. Geneva: WHO; 2010.
28. Arin IA, Ramadhan A, Abdurachman E, Trisetyarso A, Zarlis M. Air quality analysis of the capital city in developing countries during COVID-19 emergency care based on Internet of Things data. Iraqi J Sci. 2024;65(1):414–430. https://doi.org/10.24996/ijs.2024.65.1.34
29. Cocârţă DM, Prodana M, Demetrescu I, Lungu PEM, Didilescu AC. Indoor air pollution with fine particles and implications for workers’ health in dental offices: A brief review. Sustainability. 2021;13(2):599. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020599
30. Shehab MA, Pope FD. Effects of short-term exposure to particulate matter air pollution on cognitive performance. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):8237. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44561-0
31. Wei S, Semple S. Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from non-tobacco sources in homes within high-income countries: A systematic review. Air Qual Atmos Health. 2023;16(3):553–566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-022-01288-8
32. Yun H, Seo JH, Kim YG, Yang J. Impact of scented candle use on indoor air quality and airborne microbiome. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):10181. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-95010-0
33. Lim YH, Hersoug LG, Lund R, Bruunsgaard H, Ketzel M, Brandt J, Loft S. Inflammatory markers and lung function in relation to indoor and ambient air pollution. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2022;241:113944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.113944
34. Jadach CM. Consumer choice and indoor air quality [B.S. honors thesis]. Portland State University; 2025.
35. Zemitis J, Borodinecs A, Lauberts A. Ventilation impact on VOC concentration caused by building materials. Mag Civ Eng. 2018;8(84):130–139.
36. Liu J, Jiang J, Ding X, Patra SS, Cross JN, Huang C, Jung N. Real-time evaluation of terpene emissions and exposures during the use of scented wax products in residential buildings with PTR-TOF-MS. Build Environ. 2024;255:111314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111314
37. Trantallidi M, Dimitroulopoulou C, Wolkoff P, Kephalopoulos S, Carrer P. EPHECT III: Health risk assessment of exposure to household consumer products. Sci Total Environ. 2015;536:903–913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.05.123
38. Adeniran JA, Yusuf RO, Mustapha SI, Sonibare JA. Exposure to total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) from household spray products. Environ Res Eng Manag. 2017;73(4):21–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.73.4.19316
39. Harding-Smith E, Shaw DR, Shaw M, Dillon TJ, Carslaw N. Does green mean clean? Volatile organic emissions from regular versus green cleaning products. Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2024;26(2):436–450. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3em00439b
40. Madureira J, Paciência I, Rufo J, Ramos E, Barros H, Teixeira JP, de Oliveira Fernandes E. Indoor air quality in schools and its relationship with children's respiratory symptoms. Atmos Environ. 2015;118:145–156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.07.028
41. Ahn JH, Kim KH, Kim YH, Kim BW. Characterization of hazardous and odorous volatiles emitted from scented candles before lighting and when lit. J Hazard Mater. 2015;286:242–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.12.040
42. Solal C, Rousselle C, Mandin C, Manel J, Maupetit F. VOCs and formaldehyde emissions from cleaning products and air fresheners. In: 11th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate (Indoor Air 2008). 2008 Aug. https://ineris.hal.science/ineris-00973310v1
43. Larpruenrudee P, Surawski NC, Islam MS. The effect of metro construction on the air quality in the railway transport system of Sydney, Australia. Atmosphere. 2022;13(5):759. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13050759
44. Airaodion AI, Olawoyin DS, Alabi OJ, Atiba FA, Ogbuagu EO. Air freshener-induced oxidative stress and its adverse effects on immunity. Int J Health Saf Environ. 2020;6(5):579–587.
45. Akingbade AM, Ojewale AO, Idhirhi A, Olasehinde OR, Ibitoye OB, Aladeyelu SO. Testiculotoxicity activities of isopropyl alcohol-based air freshener on the testis of adult Wistar rats. J Mol Pathophysiol. 2017;6(2):17–23.
46. Hur MH, Kim C, Kim CH, Ahn HC, Ahn HY. The effects of inhalation of essential oils on the body weight, food efficiency rate and serum leptin of growing SD rats. J Korean Acad Nurs. 2006;36(2):236–243. https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2006.36.2.236
47. Umukoro S, Apara M, Ben-Azu B, Ajayi AM, Aderibigbe AO. Neurobehavioral effects of prolonged exposure to solid air freshener in mice. Iran J Toxicol. 2019;13(3):45–51. http://ijt.arakmu.ac.ir/article-1-754-en.html
48. Karr G, Quivet E, Ramel M, Nicolas M. Sprays and diffusers as indoor air fresheners: Exposure and health risk assessment based on measurements under realistic indoor conditions. Indoor Air. 2022;32(1):e12923. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12923
49. Chandrasekaran VRM, Periasamy S, Chien SP, Tseng CH, Tsai PJ, Liu MY. Physical and psychological stress along with candle fumes induced cardiopulmonary injury mimicking restaurant kitchen workers. Curr Res Toxicol. 2021;2:246–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crtox.2021.07.001
50. Wu T, Müller T, Wang N, Byron J, Langer S, Williams J, Licina D. Indoor Emission, Oxidation, and New Particle Formation of Personal Care Product Related Volatile Organic Compounds. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 2024; 11(10), 1053-1061.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 11 No 1 (2026): Winter 2026 | |
| Section | Original Research | |
| Keywords | ||
| Air fresheners; Scented candle; Indoor air quality; Locomotor activity; Growth rate | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Al Maliki M, Al-Easawi N. Effects of spray air fresheners and scented candle exposure on air quality, growth, and locomotor activity in rats. JAPH. 2026;11(1):95-116.
