Analysis and health risk assessment of priority gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during meat frying: A mathematical modelling
,
Abstract
Introduction: Emissions from cooking activities are among the major sources of indoor and ambient air pollution.
Materials and methods: This experimental research aims to explore the levels of 16 gaseous Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) during calf meat frying in laboratory, utilizing different frying temperatures (i.e 150, 190, and 240 °C) and oils (non-frying oil and, frying oil). Furthermore, non-cancer and cancer risks were also assessed. For the purpose of the study, 36 air samples were taken during meat frying and analyzed by a Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (Agilent GC8890, USA) equipped with a Flame Ionization Detector (FID) for 16 PAH compounds.
Results: The concentration of ∑16PAHs during meat frying using sunflower oil and frying oil use varied from 5.037-10.025 µg/m3 and 3.978-8.075 µg/m3, respectively. Hazard Quotients (HQs) associated with PAHs exposure during meat frying using frying oil for cooks, adults and children were in the range of 0.440-1.338 (0.769), 0.503-1.527 (0.879) and 0.504-1.531 (0.881), respectively. For frying oil, HQ values were in the ranges of 0.32-1.19 (0.69), 0.37-1.36 (0.79), and 0.37-1.36 (0.79) for cooks, adults, and children, respectively. The inhalation cancer risk values through exposure to meat using sunflower oil for cooks, adults and children were 1.4E-04-4.2E-04 (2.4E-04), 2.8E-05-8.6E-05 (4.9E-05), and 7.7E-06-2.3E-05 (1.3E-05), respectively. For frying oil, the cancer risk values were as: 1.0E-04-3.7E-04 (2.2E-04) for cooks, 2.1E-05-7.6E-05 (4.4E-05) for adults and 5.63E-06-2.08E-05 (1.2E-05) for children.
Conclusion: This study showed high levels of PAHs during meat frying indicating health risks for children and adults. The research’s results have practical use for public health professionals and policy makers, for regular monitoring of indoor PAHs during cooking and the development of policies to reduce exposure to these air pollutants in enclosed spaces.
1. Lerner JC, Sanchez EY, Sambeth JE, Porta AA. Characterization and health risk assessment of VOCs in occupational environments in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Atmospheric environment. 2012;55:440-7.
2. Ghasemi R, Saranjam B, Zarei A, Babaei A, Ghaffari HR, Fazlzadeh M. Assessment of health risks of university professors through exposure to BTEX compounds from white board markers. Scientific Reports. 2025;15(1):1-11.
3. Dehghani MH, Zarei A, Farhang M, Kumar P, Yousefi M, Kim K-H. Levels of formaldehyde in residential indoor air of Gonabad, Iran. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. 2020;26(2):483-94.
4. Pinakana SD, Patlan CG, Mendez E, Raysoni AU. A pilot study on particulate matter concentrations from cooking and its effects on indoor air pollution in a Mexican American household in Mission, South Texas, USA. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering. 2024;9:100757.
5. Alighadri M, Alipour M, Ghaffari HR, Zarei A, Gharari N, Alizadeh B, et al. Indoor air pollution due to bacterial bioaerosols in beauty salons of Ardabil, Iran: characterization, influencing factors and health risk assessment. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2024;23(1):3.
6. Bai L, Geng X, Liu X. Review of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution characteristics and carcinogenic risk assessment in global cooking environments. Environmental Pollution. 2024:124816.
7. Abdel-Shafy HI, Mansour MS. A review on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source, environmental impact, effect on human health and remediation. Egyptian journal of petroleum. 2016;25(1):107-23.
8. Freire C, Abril A, Fernández M, Ramos R, Estarlich M, Manrique A, et al. Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene and PAH exposure in 4-year-old Spanish children. Science of the total environment. 2009;407(5):1562-9.
9. Reizer E, Viskolcz B, Fiser B. Formation and growth mechanisms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A mini-review. Chemosphere. 2022;291:132793.
10. Domingo JL, Nadal M. Human dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A review of the scientific literature. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2015;86:144-53.
11. Cheng X, Gao H, Li Q, Zhang N, Lu Y. Sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposure and their effects on glycolipid metabolism in pregnant women and their newborn in Haikou City, China. Frontiers in Public Health. 2025;12:1510517.
12. Chakkaravarthi S, Agarwal T. Fish consumption patterns and health risk assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Fried and Grilled Fish Products and mitigation strategies. Toxicology Reports. 2025:101953.
13. Lemarchand-Carpentier CH. Indices of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a bioindicator species: point mutation detection in the cotton rat: Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College; 2000.
14. Choi H, Harrison R, Komulainen H, Saborit JMD. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants: World Health Organization; 2010.
15. Choi J, Knudsen LE, Mizrak S, Joas A. Identification of exposure to environmental chemicals in children and older adults using human biomonitoring data sorted by age: Results from a literature review. International journal of hygiene and environmental health. 2017;220(2):282-98.
16. Chen Y, Ho KF, Ho SSH, Ho WK, Lee SC, Yu JZ, et al. Gaseous and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH s) emissions from commercial restaurants in Hong Kong. Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 2007;9(12):1402-9.
17. Bansal V, Kumar P, Kwon EE, Kim K-H. Review of the quantification techniques for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food products. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017;57(15):3297-312.
18. Sun Y, Wu S, Gong G. Trends of research on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food: A 20-year perspective from 1997 to 2017. Trends in food science & technology. 2019;83:86-98.
19. Martorell I, Perelló G, Martí-Cid R, Castell V, Llobet JM, Domingo JL. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in foods and estimated PAH intake by the population of Catalonia, Spain: temporal trend. Environment international. 2010;36(5):424-32.
20. Adeyeye SA. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in foods: A critical review. Current Nutrition & Food Science. 2020;16(6):866-73.
21. Zelinkova Z, Wenzl T. The occurrence of 16 EPA PAHs in food–a review. Polycyclic aromatic compounds. 2015;35(2-4):248-84.
22. Lawal AT. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. A review. Cogent Environmental Science. 2017;3(1):1339841.
23. Baumgartner J, Zhang Y, Schauer JJ, Huang W, Wang Y, Ezzati M. Highway proximity and black carbon from cookstoves as a risk factor for higher blood pressure in rural China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2014;111(36):13229-34.
24. Zhao Y, Zhao B, editors. Emissions of air pollutants from Chinese cooking: A literature review. Building simulation; 2018: Springer.
25. Dehghani S, Fararouei M, Rafiee A, Hoepner L, Oskoei V, Hoseini M. Prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and effects on neonatal anthropometric indices and thyroid-stimulating hormone in a Middle Eastern population. Chemosphere. 2022;286:131605.
26. Martí-Cid R, Llobet JM, Castell V, Domingo JL. Evolution of the dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Catalonia, Spain. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2008;46(9):3163-71.
27. Miller S, Nazaroff W. Environmental tobacco smoke particles in multizone indoor environments. Atmospheric Environment. 2001;35(12):2053-67.
28. Hasan GA, Rinky F, Das AK, Ahmed KS, Sikdar K. Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels and health risks in kitchen dust from wood, kerosene, and gas cooking systems in Cumilla, Bangladesh. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances. 2024;15:100457.
29. Munyeza CF, Osano AM, Maghanga JK, Forbes PB. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon gaseous emissions from household cooking devices: A Kenyan case study. Environmental toxicology and chemistry. 2020;39(3):538-47.
30. Ghorbani M, Najafi Saleh H, Barjasteh-Askari F, Nasseri S, Davoudi M. The effect of gas versus charcoal open flames on the induction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cooked meat: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2020;18:345-54.
31. Chen D, Wei H, Zhang Y, Yang X, Xu Y, Guan Q, et al. Effects of indoor air pollution from household solid fuel use on the risk of gastrointestinal and liver diseases in middle aged and elderly adults. Environment International. 2024;188:108738.
32. Katragadda HR, Fullana A, Sidhu S, Carbonell-Barrachina ÁA. Emissions of volatile aldehydes from heated cooking oils. Food Chemistry. 2010;120(1):59-65.
33. Oke EK, Idowu MA, Sobukola O, Adeyeye S, Akinsola A. Frying of food: a critical review. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology. 2018;16(2):107-27.
34. Stier RF. Ensuring the health and safety of fried foods. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2013;115(8):956-64.
35. Pankaj SK, Keener KM. A review and research trends in alternate frying technologies. Current Opinion in Food Science. 2017;16:74-9.
36. Zaghi AN, Barbalho SM, Guiguer EL, Otoboni AM. Frying process: From conventional to air frying technology. Food Reviews International. 2019;35(8):763-77.
37. Graña SÁ, Abarquero D, Claro J, Combarros-Fuertes P, Fresno JM, Tornadijo ME. Behaviour of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) oil and high oleic sunflower oil during the frying of churros. Food Chemistry Advances. 2025;6:100899.
38. Téllez-Morales J, Rodríguez-Miranda J, Aguilar-Garay R. Review of the influence of hot air frying on food quality. Measurement: Food 14: 100153. 2024.
39. Liu L, Huang P, Xie W, Wang J, Li Y, Wang H, et al. Effect of air fryer frying temperature on the quality attributes of sturgeon steak and comparison of its performance with traditional deep fat frying. Food Science & Nutrition. 2022;10(2):342-53.
40. NIOSH. Manual of Analytical Methods, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons by GC, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers. 1994.
41. Adimalla N, Chen J, Qian HJE, safety e. Spatial characteristics of heavy metal contamination and potential human health risk assessment of urban soils: A case study from an urban region of South India. 2020;194:110406.
42. EPA U. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). National Center for Environmental Assessment. Office of Science and Technology, Washington, DC. 2001.
43. EPA U. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS). Volume I. Human Health Evaluation Manual (HHEM). Part E. Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment; U.S. EPA: Washington, DC, USA, Volume 1, ISBN EPA/540/1-89/002. 2004.
44. EPA U. Exposure factors handbook, Edition. http:// www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/report.html.pdf. 2011.
45. Hsu H-I, Lin M-Y, Chen Y-C, Chen W-Y, Yoon C, Chen M-R, et al. An integrated approach to assess exposure and health-risk from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a fastener manufacturing industry. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2014;11(9):9578-94.
46. EPA U. Exposure factors handbook : 2011 edition (Final Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (EPA/600/R-09/052F). 2011.
47. Huang H-f, Xing X-l, Zhang Z-z, Qi S-h, Yang D, Yuen DA, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in multimedia environment of Heshan coal district, Guangxi: distribution, source diagnosis and health risk assessment. Environmental geochemistry and health. 2016;38:1169-81.
48. Badyda AJ, Rogula-Kozłowska W, Majewski G, Bralewska K, Widziewicz-Rzońca K, Piekarska B, et al. Inhalation risk to PAHs and BTEX during barbecuing: The role of fuel/food type and route of exposure. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2022;440:129635.
49. Rostami R, Zarei A, Saranjam B, Ghaffari HR, Hazrati S, Poureshg Y, et al. Exposure and risk assessment of PAHs in indoor air of waterpipe cafés in Ardebil, Iran. Building and Environment. 2019;155:47-57.
50. Adeniran JA, Jimoh BF, Atanda AS, Adewoye LT, Yusuf M-NO, Abdulraheem KA, et al. Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from cooking fuels burning in Nigeria. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds. 2024;44(3):1593-608.
51. Agarwal T. Concentration level, pattern and toxic potential of PAHs in traffic soil of Delhi, India. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2009;171(1-3):894-900.
52. Ali N. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor air and dust samples of different Saudi microenvironments; health and carcinogenic risk assessment for the general population. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;696:133995.
53. Bai L, Chen W, He Z, Sun S, Qin J. Pollution characteristics, sources and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2. 5 in an office building in northern areas, China. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2020;53:101891.
54. Schneider K, Roller M, Kalberlah F, Schuhmacher‐Wolz U. Cancer risk assessment for oral exposure to PAH mixtures. Journal of Applied Toxicology: An International Journal. 2002;22(1):73-83.
55. Yousefi M, Shemshadi G, Khorshidian N, Ghasemzadeh-Mohammadi V, Fakhri Y, Hosseini H, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content of edible vegetable oils in Iran: a risk assessment study. Food and chemical toxicology. 2018;118:480-9.
56. Nisbet IC, Lagoy PK. Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology. 1992;16(3):290-300.
57. Malcolm H, Dobson S. The Calculation of an Environmental Assessment Level (EAL) for Atmospheric PAHs Using Relative Potencies; Department of the Environment, London1994.
58. See SW, Karthikeyan S, Balasubramanian R. Health risk assessment of occupational exposure to particulate-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with Chinese, Malay and Indian cooking. Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 2006;8(3):369-76.
59. USEPA I. Reference Concentration for Chronic Inhalation Exposure (RfC): Integrated Risk Information System; 2007 [cited 2014. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/iris.
60. Kermani M, Taghizadeh F, Jafari AJ, Gholami M, Shahsavani A, Nakhjirgan P. PAHs pollution in the outdoor air of areas with various land uses in the industrial city of Iran: distribution, source apportionment, and risk assessment. Heliyon. 2023;9(6).
61. Ma Y, Liu A, Egodawatta P, McGree J, Goonetilleke A. Quantitative assessment of human health risk posed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban road dust. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;575:895-904.
62. Molaei I, Khezri SM, Sekhavatjou MS, Karbassi A, Hosseni Alhashemi A. Health risk assessment of heavy metals, BTEX and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the workplace in a secondary oil re-refining factory. Journal of Advances in Environmental Health Research. 2020;8(2):79-94.
63. Gope M, Masto RE, George J, Balachandran S. Exposure and cancer risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the street dust of Asansol city, India. Sustainable cities and society. 2018;38:616-26.
64. Canada H. Federal Contaminated Site Risk Assessment in Canada. Part II: Health Canada Toxicological Reference Values (TRVs) Environmental Health Assessment Services Safe Environments Programme Health Canada Ottawa, ON, Canada. 2004.
65. Ali N, Ismail IMI, Khoder M, Shamy M, Alghamdi M, Al Khalaf A, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the settled dust of automobile workshops, health and carcinogenic risk evaluation. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;601:478-84.
66. Jakovljević I, Smoljo I, Sever Štrukil Z, Pehnec G. Carcinogenic activity and risk assessment of PAHs in ambient air: PM10 particle fraction and bulk deposition. Toxics. 2023;11(3):228.
67. EPA U. Exposure factors handbook. United States Environmental Protection Agency Philadelphia, PA. 1997.
68. Bai L, He Z, Ni S, Chen W, Li N, Sun S. Investigation of PM2. 5 absorbed with heavy metal elements, source apportionment and their health impacts in residential houses in the North-east region of China. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2019;51:101690.
69. Zhang Z, Yuan Q, Wang M, Hu T, Huang Y, Xiu G, et al. Exposure and health risk assessment of PM2. 5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during winter at residential homes: a case study in four Chinese cities. Science of The Total Environment. 2023;895:165111.
70. Wang J, Guinot B, Dong Z, Li X, Xu H, Xiao S, et al. PM2. 5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), oxygenated-PAHs and phthalate esters (PAEs) inside and outside middle school classrooms in Xi’an, China: Concentration, characteristics and health risk assessment. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2017;17(7):1811-24.
71. Fadel M, Ledoux F, Afif C, Courcot D. Human health risk assessment for PAHs, phthalates, elements, PCDD/Fs, and DL-PCBs in PM2. 5 and for NMVOCs in two East-Mediterranean urban sites under industrial influence. Atmospheric Pollution Research. 2022;13(1):101261.
72. Shamsedini N, Dehghani M, Samaei MR, Nozari M, Bahrany S, Tabatabaei Z, et al. Non-carcinogenic and cumulative risk assessment of exposure of kitchen workers in restaurants and local residents in the vicinity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Scientific Reports. 2023;13(1):6649.
73. Qasemi M, Alami A, Zarei A, Shams M, Afsharnia M. Investigation and health risk assessment of PM2. 5 during potato and meat frying. MethodsX. 2025:103419.
74. EPA A. Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume I: human health evaluation manual (Part E, supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment). EPA/540/R/99; 2004.
75. EPA U. Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume I: Human health evaluation manual (part a). EPA/540/1-89/002. 1989.
76. Monferran MV, Garnero PL, Wunderlin DA, de los Angeles Bistoni M. Potential human health risks from metals and As via Odontesthes bonariensis consumption and ecological risk assessments in a eutrophic lake. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety. 2016;129:302-10.
77. EPA . Risk-based concentration table. United States Environmental Protection Agency Philadelphia, 2000.
78. Li J, Zhao H, Russell ML, Delp WW, Johnson A, Tang X, et al. Air pollutant exposure concentrations from cooking a meal with a gas or induction cooktop and the effectiveness of two recirculating range hoods with filters. Indoor Environments. 2024;1(4):100047.
79. Adeola A, Nsibande S, Osano A, Maghanga J, Naudé Y, Forbes P. Analysis of gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from cooking devices in selected rural and urban kitchens in Bomet and Narok counties of Kenya. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2022;194(6):435.
80. Adesina OA, Ojesola FF, Olowolafe TI, Igbafe A. Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor air of local public eatery in Ado-Ekiti, Western Nigeria. Scientific African. 2022;16:e01191.
81. Zhao Y, Zhao B. Emissions of air pollutants from Chinese cooking: A literature review, Build. Simul., 11, 977–995. 2018.
82. Directorate C, Opinions S. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on the risks to human health of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in food. 2002.
83. Mafra I, Amaral JS, Oliveira MBP. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in olive oils and other vegetable oils; potential for carcinogenesis. Olives and olive oil in health and disease prevention: Elsevier; 2010. p. 489-98.
84. (EC) EC. EUR-Lex Access to European Union law. Retrieved from (https://eur-lex.europa.eu). 2023.
85. Li C-T, Lin Y-C, Lee W-J, Tsai P-J. Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their carcinogenic potencies from cooking sources to the urban atmosphere. Environmental health perspectives. 2003;111(4):483-7.
86. Chen J-W, Wang S-L, Hsieh DPH, Yang H-H, Lee H-L. Carcinogenic potencies of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for back-door neighbors of restaurants with cooking emissions. Science of the total environment. 2012;417:68-75.
87. Yu K, Yang K, Chen Y, Gong J, Chen Y, Shih H. Candice Lung, SC Indoor air pollution from gas cooking in five Taiwanese families. Build Environ. 2015;93:258-66.
88. Wu M-T, Lin P-C, Pan C-H, Peng C-Y. Risk assessment of personal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aldehydes in three commercial cooking workplaces. Scientific reports. 2019;9(1):1661.
89. Zhao P, Yu K-P, Lin C-C. Risk assessment of inhalation exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Taiwanese workers at night markets. International archives of occupational and environmental health. 2011;84:231-7.
90. Siegmann K, Sattler K. Aerosol from hot cooking oil, a possible health hazard. Journal of Aerosol Science. 1996(27):S493-S4.
91. Zhu L, Wang J. Sources and patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution in kitchen air, China. Chemosphere. 2003;50(5):611-8.
92. Soleimani Z, Haghshenas R, Farzi Y, Taherkhani A, Naddafi K, Hajebi A, et al. Exposure and biomonitoring of PAHs in indoor air at the urban residential area of Iran: exposure levels and affecting factors. Chemosphere. 2024;356:141886.
93. Sidhu MK, Ravindra K, Mor S, John S. Household air pollution from various types of rural kitchens and its exposure assessment. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;586:419-29.
94. Li C, Bai L, Wang H, Li G, Cui Y. Characteristics of indoor and outdoor Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution in TSP in rural Northeast China: A case study of heating and non-heating periods. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2022;20(2):899-913.
95. Du W, Jiang S, Lei Y, Wang J, Cui Z, Xiang P, et al. Occurrence, formation mechanism, and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in barbecued food. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2025;293:118046.
96. Rose M, Holland J, Dowding A, Petch SR, White S, Fernandes A, et al. Investigation into the formation of PAHs in foods prepared in the home to determine the effects of frying, grilling, barbecuing, toasting and roasting. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2015;78:1-9.
97. Yao Z, Li J, Wu B, Hao X, Yin Y, Jiang X. Characteristics of PAHs from deep-frying and frying cooking fumes. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2015;22:16110-20.
98. Min S, Patra JK, Shin H-S. Factors influencing inhibition of eight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in heated meat model system. Food Chemistry. 2018;239:993-1000.
99. Chen BH, Chen YC. Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the smoke from heated model lipids and food lipids. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2001;49(11):5238-43.
100. McGrath TE, Chan WG, Hajaligol MR. Low temperature mechanism for the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from the pyrolysis of cellulose. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 2003;66(1-2):51-70.
101. Li Y-C, Qiu J-Q, Shu M, Ho SSH, Cao J-J, Wang G-H, et al. Characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM 2.5 emitted from different cooking activities in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2018;25:4750-60.
102. Singh L, Agarwal T, Simal-Gandara J. PAHs, diet and cancer prevention: Cooking process driven-strategies. Trends in food science & technology. 2020;99:487-506.
103. Hamidi EN, Hajeb P, Selamat J, Razis AFA. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their bioaccessibility in meat: A tool for assessing human cancer risk. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2016;17(1):15-23.
104. Rey-Salgueiro L, García-Falcón MS, Martínez-Carballo E, Simal-Gándara J. Effects of toasting procedures on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in toasted bread. Food Chemistry. 2008;108(2):607-15.
105. Saito E, Tanaka N, Miyazaki A, Tsuzaki M. Concentration and particle size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons formed by thermal cooking. Food chemistry. 2014;153:285-91.
106. Karslıoğlu B, Kolsarıcı N. The impact of fat contents and different cooking processes on the potential health concerns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in chicken doner kebabs. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds. 2024:1-20.
107. Lee J-G, Kim S-Y, Moon J-S, Kim S-H, Kang D-H, Yoon H-J. Effects of grilling procedures on levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meats. Food chemistry. 2016;199:632-8.
108. Sankhyan S, Zabinski K, O'Brien RE, Coyan S, Patel S, Vance ME. Aerosol emissions and their volatility from heating different cooking oils at multiple temperatures. Environmental Science: Atmospheres. 2022;2(6):1364-75.
109. TA C. Mutagenicity and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content of fumes from heated cooking oils produced in Taiwan. Mutation Research. 1997;381:157-61.
110. Huboyo HS, Tohno S, Cao R. Indoor PM2. 5 characteristics and CO concentration related to water-based and oil-based cooking emissions using a gas stove. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2011;11(4):401-11.
111. Lewné M, Johannesson S, Strandberg B, Bigert C. Exposure to particles, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide in Swedish restaurant kitchen workers. Annals of work exposures and health. 2017;61(2):152-63.
112. Yu K-P, Yang KR, Chen YC, Gong JY, Chen YP, Shih H-C, et al. Indoor air pollution from gas cooking in five Taiwanese families. Building and Environment. 2015;93:258-66.
113. Cancer) IIAfRo. Household Use of Solid Fuels and High Temperature Frying. In IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on
Cancer: Lyon, France. 2010;95:1-430.
114. Zhu Y, Duan X, Qin N, Lv J, Wu G, Wei F. Health risk from dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a typical high cancer incidence area in southwest China. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;649:731-8.
115. Deng N, Zheng X, Shi S. Assessment of health risks of PAHs from rural cooking emissions: Neighborhood diffusion and the impact of village settlement characteristics. Building and Environment. 2023;244:110801.
2. Ghasemi R, Saranjam B, Zarei A, Babaei A, Ghaffari HR, Fazlzadeh M. Assessment of health risks of university professors through exposure to BTEX compounds from white board markers. Scientific Reports. 2025;15(1):1-11.
3. Dehghani MH, Zarei A, Farhang M, Kumar P, Yousefi M, Kim K-H. Levels of formaldehyde in residential indoor air of Gonabad, Iran. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. 2020;26(2):483-94.
4. Pinakana SD, Patlan CG, Mendez E, Raysoni AU. A pilot study on particulate matter concentrations from cooking and its effects on indoor air pollution in a Mexican American household in Mission, South Texas, USA. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering. 2024;9:100757.
5. Alighadri M, Alipour M, Ghaffari HR, Zarei A, Gharari N, Alizadeh B, et al. Indoor air pollution due to bacterial bioaerosols in beauty salons of Ardabil, Iran: characterization, influencing factors and health risk assessment. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2024;23(1):3.
6. Bai L, Geng X, Liu X. Review of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution characteristics and carcinogenic risk assessment in global cooking environments. Environmental Pollution. 2024:124816.
7. Abdel-Shafy HI, Mansour MS. A review on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source, environmental impact, effect on human health and remediation. Egyptian journal of petroleum. 2016;25(1):107-23.
8. Freire C, Abril A, Fernández M, Ramos R, Estarlich M, Manrique A, et al. Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene and PAH exposure in 4-year-old Spanish children. Science of the total environment. 2009;407(5):1562-9.
9. Reizer E, Viskolcz B, Fiser B. Formation and growth mechanisms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A mini-review. Chemosphere. 2022;291:132793.
10. Domingo JL, Nadal M. Human dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A review of the scientific literature. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2015;86:144-53.
11. Cheng X, Gao H, Li Q, Zhang N, Lu Y. Sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposure and their effects on glycolipid metabolism in pregnant women and their newborn in Haikou City, China. Frontiers in Public Health. 2025;12:1510517.
12. Chakkaravarthi S, Agarwal T. Fish consumption patterns and health risk assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Fried and Grilled Fish Products and mitigation strategies. Toxicology Reports. 2025:101953.
13. Lemarchand-Carpentier CH. Indices of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a bioindicator species: point mutation detection in the cotton rat: Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College; 2000.
14. Choi H, Harrison R, Komulainen H, Saborit JMD. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants: World Health Organization; 2010.
15. Choi J, Knudsen LE, Mizrak S, Joas A. Identification of exposure to environmental chemicals in children and older adults using human biomonitoring data sorted by age: Results from a literature review. International journal of hygiene and environmental health. 2017;220(2):282-98.
16. Chen Y, Ho KF, Ho SSH, Ho WK, Lee SC, Yu JZ, et al. Gaseous and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH s) emissions from commercial restaurants in Hong Kong. Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 2007;9(12):1402-9.
17. Bansal V, Kumar P, Kwon EE, Kim K-H. Review of the quantification techniques for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in food products. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017;57(15):3297-312.
18. Sun Y, Wu S, Gong G. Trends of research on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food: A 20-year perspective from 1997 to 2017. Trends in food science & technology. 2019;83:86-98.
19. Martorell I, Perelló G, Martí-Cid R, Castell V, Llobet JM, Domingo JL. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in foods and estimated PAH intake by the population of Catalonia, Spain: temporal trend. Environment international. 2010;36(5):424-32.
20. Adeyeye SA. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in foods: A critical review. Current Nutrition & Food Science. 2020;16(6):866-73.
21. Zelinkova Z, Wenzl T. The occurrence of 16 EPA PAHs in food–a review. Polycyclic aromatic compounds. 2015;35(2-4):248-84.
22. Lawal AT. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. A review. Cogent Environmental Science. 2017;3(1):1339841.
23. Baumgartner J, Zhang Y, Schauer JJ, Huang W, Wang Y, Ezzati M. Highway proximity and black carbon from cookstoves as a risk factor for higher blood pressure in rural China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2014;111(36):13229-34.
24. Zhao Y, Zhao B, editors. Emissions of air pollutants from Chinese cooking: A literature review. Building simulation; 2018: Springer.
25. Dehghani S, Fararouei M, Rafiee A, Hoepner L, Oskoei V, Hoseini M. Prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and effects on neonatal anthropometric indices and thyroid-stimulating hormone in a Middle Eastern population. Chemosphere. 2022;286:131605.
26. Martí-Cid R, Llobet JM, Castell V, Domingo JL. Evolution of the dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Catalonia, Spain. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2008;46(9):3163-71.
27. Miller S, Nazaroff W. Environmental tobacco smoke particles in multizone indoor environments. Atmospheric Environment. 2001;35(12):2053-67.
28. Hasan GA, Rinky F, Das AK, Ahmed KS, Sikdar K. Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels and health risks in kitchen dust from wood, kerosene, and gas cooking systems in Cumilla, Bangladesh. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances. 2024;15:100457.
29. Munyeza CF, Osano AM, Maghanga JK, Forbes PB. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon gaseous emissions from household cooking devices: A Kenyan case study. Environmental toxicology and chemistry. 2020;39(3):538-47.
30. Ghorbani M, Najafi Saleh H, Barjasteh-Askari F, Nasseri S, Davoudi M. The effect of gas versus charcoal open flames on the induction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cooked meat: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2020;18:345-54.
31. Chen D, Wei H, Zhang Y, Yang X, Xu Y, Guan Q, et al. Effects of indoor air pollution from household solid fuel use on the risk of gastrointestinal and liver diseases in middle aged and elderly adults. Environment International. 2024;188:108738.
32. Katragadda HR, Fullana A, Sidhu S, Carbonell-Barrachina ÁA. Emissions of volatile aldehydes from heated cooking oils. Food Chemistry. 2010;120(1):59-65.
33. Oke EK, Idowu MA, Sobukola O, Adeyeye S, Akinsola A. Frying of food: a critical review. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology. 2018;16(2):107-27.
34. Stier RF. Ensuring the health and safety of fried foods. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2013;115(8):956-64.
35. Pankaj SK, Keener KM. A review and research trends in alternate frying technologies. Current Opinion in Food Science. 2017;16:74-9.
36. Zaghi AN, Barbalho SM, Guiguer EL, Otoboni AM. Frying process: From conventional to air frying technology. Food Reviews International. 2019;35(8):763-77.
37. Graña SÁ, Abarquero D, Claro J, Combarros-Fuertes P, Fresno JM, Tornadijo ME. Behaviour of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) oil and high oleic sunflower oil during the frying of churros. Food Chemistry Advances. 2025;6:100899.
38. Téllez-Morales J, Rodríguez-Miranda J, Aguilar-Garay R. Review of the influence of hot air frying on food quality. Measurement: Food 14: 100153. 2024.
39. Liu L, Huang P, Xie W, Wang J, Li Y, Wang H, et al. Effect of air fryer frying temperature on the quality attributes of sturgeon steak and comparison of its performance with traditional deep fat frying. Food Science & Nutrition. 2022;10(2):342-53.
40. NIOSH. Manual of Analytical Methods, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons by GC, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers. 1994.
41. Adimalla N, Chen J, Qian HJE, safety e. Spatial characteristics of heavy metal contamination and potential human health risk assessment of urban soils: A case study from an urban region of South India. 2020;194:110406.
42. EPA U. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). National Center for Environmental Assessment. Office of Science and Technology, Washington, DC. 2001.
43. EPA U. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS). Volume I. Human Health Evaluation Manual (HHEM). Part E. Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment; U.S. EPA: Washington, DC, USA, Volume 1, ISBN EPA/540/1-89/002. 2004.
44. EPA U. Exposure factors handbook, Edition. http:// www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/report.html.pdf. 2011.
45. Hsu H-I, Lin M-Y, Chen Y-C, Chen W-Y, Yoon C, Chen M-R, et al. An integrated approach to assess exposure and health-risk from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a fastener manufacturing industry. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2014;11(9):9578-94.
46. EPA U. Exposure factors handbook : 2011 edition (Final Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (EPA/600/R-09/052F). 2011.
47. Huang H-f, Xing X-l, Zhang Z-z, Qi S-h, Yang D, Yuen DA, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in multimedia environment of Heshan coal district, Guangxi: distribution, source diagnosis and health risk assessment. Environmental geochemistry and health. 2016;38:1169-81.
48. Badyda AJ, Rogula-Kozłowska W, Majewski G, Bralewska K, Widziewicz-Rzońca K, Piekarska B, et al. Inhalation risk to PAHs and BTEX during barbecuing: The role of fuel/food type and route of exposure. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2022;440:129635.
49. Rostami R, Zarei A, Saranjam B, Ghaffari HR, Hazrati S, Poureshg Y, et al. Exposure and risk assessment of PAHs in indoor air of waterpipe cafés in Ardebil, Iran. Building and Environment. 2019;155:47-57.
50. Adeniran JA, Jimoh BF, Atanda AS, Adewoye LT, Yusuf M-NO, Abdulraheem KA, et al. Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from cooking fuels burning in Nigeria. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds. 2024;44(3):1593-608.
51. Agarwal T. Concentration level, pattern and toxic potential of PAHs in traffic soil of Delhi, India. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2009;171(1-3):894-900.
52. Ali N. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor air and dust samples of different Saudi microenvironments; health and carcinogenic risk assessment for the general population. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;696:133995.
53. Bai L, Chen W, He Z, Sun S, Qin J. Pollution characteristics, sources and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2. 5 in an office building in northern areas, China. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2020;53:101891.
54. Schneider K, Roller M, Kalberlah F, Schuhmacher‐Wolz U. Cancer risk assessment for oral exposure to PAH mixtures. Journal of Applied Toxicology: An International Journal. 2002;22(1):73-83.
55. Yousefi M, Shemshadi G, Khorshidian N, Ghasemzadeh-Mohammadi V, Fakhri Y, Hosseini H, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content of edible vegetable oils in Iran: a risk assessment study. Food and chemical toxicology. 2018;118:480-9.
56. Nisbet IC, Lagoy PK. Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology. 1992;16(3):290-300.
57. Malcolm H, Dobson S. The Calculation of an Environmental Assessment Level (EAL) for Atmospheric PAHs Using Relative Potencies; Department of the Environment, London1994.
58. See SW, Karthikeyan S, Balasubramanian R. Health risk assessment of occupational exposure to particulate-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with Chinese, Malay and Indian cooking. Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 2006;8(3):369-76.
59. USEPA I. Reference Concentration for Chronic Inhalation Exposure (RfC): Integrated Risk Information System; 2007 [cited 2014. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/iris.
60. Kermani M, Taghizadeh F, Jafari AJ, Gholami M, Shahsavani A, Nakhjirgan P. PAHs pollution in the outdoor air of areas with various land uses in the industrial city of Iran: distribution, source apportionment, and risk assessment. Heliyon. 2023;9(6).
61. Ma Y, Liu A, Egodawatta P, McGree J, Goonetilleke A. Quantitative assessment of human health risk posed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban road dust. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;575:895-904.
62. Molaei I, Khezri SM, Sekhavatjou MS, Karbassi A, Hosseni Alhashemi A. Health risk assessment of heavy metals, BTEX and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the workplace in a secondary oil re-refining factory. Journal of Advances in Environmental Health Research. 2020;8(2):79-94.
63. Gope M, Masto RE, George J, Balachandran S. Exposure and cancer risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the street dust of Asansol city, India. Sustainable cities and society. 2018;38:616-26.
64. Canada H. Federal Contaminated Site Risk Assessment in Canada. Part II: Health Canada Toxicological Reference Values (TRVs) Environmental Health Assessment Services Safe Environments Programme Health Canada Ottawa, ON, Canada. 2004.
65. Ali N, Ismail IMI, Khoder M, Shamy M, Alghamdi M, Al Khalaf A, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the settled dust of automobile workshops, health and carcinogenic risk evaluation. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;601:478-84.
66. Jakovljević I, Smoljo I, Sever Štrukil Z, Pehnec G. Carcinogenic activity and risk assessment of PAHs in ambient air: PM10 particle fraction and bulk deposition. Toxics. 2023;11(3):228.
67. EPA U. Exposure factors handbook. United States Environmental Protection Agency Philadelphia, PA. 1997.
68. Bai L, He Z, Ni S, Chen W, Li N, Sun S. Investigation of PM2. 5 absorbed with heavy metal elements, source apportionment and their health impacts in residential houses in the North-east region of China. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2019;51:101690.
69. Zhang Z, Yuan Q, Wang M, Hu T, Huang Y, Xiu G, et al. Exposure and health risk assessment of PM2. 5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during winter at residential homes: a case study in four Chinese cities. Science of The Total Environment. 2023;895:165111.
70. Wang J, Guinot B, Dong Z, Li X, Xu H, Xiao S, et al. PM2. 5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), oxygenated-PAHs and phthalate esters (PAEs) inside and outside middle school classrooms in Xi’an, China: Concentration, characteristics and health risk assessment. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2017;17(7):1811-24.
71. Fadel M, Ledoux F, Afif C, Courcot D. Human health risk assessment for PAHs, phthalates, elements, PCDD/Fs, and DL-PCBs in PM2. 5 and for NMVOCs in two East-Mediterranean urban sites under industrial influence. Atmospheric Pollution Research. 2022;13(1):101261.
72. Shamsedini N, Dehghani M, Samaei MR, Nozari M, Bahrany S, Tabatabaei Z, et al. Non-carcinogenic and cumulative risk assessment of exposure of kitchen workers in restaurants and local residents in the vicinity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Scientific Reports. 2023;13(1):6649.
73. Qasemi M, Alami A, Zarei A, Shams M, Afsharnia M. Investigation and health risk assessment of PM2. 5 during potato and meat frying. MethodsX. 2025:103419.
74. EPA A. Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume I: human health evaluation manual (Part E, supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment). EPA/540/R/99; 2004.
75. EPA U. Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume I: Human health evaluation manual (part a). EPA/540/1-89/002. 1989.
76. Monferran MV, Garnero PL, Wunderlin DA, de los Angeles Bistoni M. Potential human health risks from metals and As via Odontesthes bonariensis consumption and ecological risk assessments in a eutrophic lake. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety. 2016;129:302-10.
77. EPA . Risk-based concentration table. United States Environmental Protection Agency Philadelphia, 2000.
78. Li J, Zhao H, Russell ML, Delp WW, Johnson A, Tang X, et al. Air pollutant exposure concentrations from cooking a meal with a gas or induction cooktop and the effectiveness of two recirculating range hoods with filters. Indoor Environments. 2024;1(4):100047.
79. Adeola A, Nsibande S, Osano A, Maghanga J, Naudé Y, Forbes P. Analysis of gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from cooking devices in selected rural and urban kitchens in Bomet and Narok counties of Kenya. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2022;194(6):435.
80. Adesina OA, Ojesola FF, Olowolafe TI, Igbafe A. Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor air of local public eatery in Ado-Ekiti, Western Nigeria. Scientific African. 2022;16:e01191.
81. Zhao Y, Zhao B. Emissions of air pollutants from Chinese cooking: A literature review, Build. Simul., 11, 977–995. 2018.
82. Directorate C, Opinions S. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on the risks to human health of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in food. 2002.
83. Mafra I, Amaral JS, Oliveira MBP. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in olive oils and other vegetable oils; potential for carcinogenesis. Olives and olive oil in health and disease prevention: Elsevier; 2010. p. 489-98.
84. (EC) EC. EUR-Lex Access to European Union law. Retrieved from (https://eur-lex.europa.eu). 2023.
85. Li C-T, Lin Y-C, Lee W-J, Tsai P-J. Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their carcinogenic potencies from cooking sources to the urban atmosphere. Environmental health perspectives. 2003;111(4):483-7.
86. Chen J-W, Wang S-L, Hsieh DPH, Yang H-H, Lee H-L. Carcinogenic potencies of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for back-door neighbors of restaurants with cooking emissions. Science of the total environment. 2012;417:68-75.
87. Yu K, Yang K, Chen Y, Gong J, Chen Y, Shih H. Candice Lung, SC Indoor air pollution from gas cooking in five Taiwanese families. Build Environ. 2015;93:258-66.
88. Wu M-T, Lin P-C, Pan C-H, Peng C-Y. Risk assessment of personal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aldehydes in three commercial cooking workplaces. Scientific reports. 2019;9(1):1661.
89. Zhao P, Yu K-P, Lin C-C. Risk assessment of inhalation exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Taiwanese workers at night markets. International archives of occupational and environmental health. 2011;84:231-7.
90. Siegmann K, Sattler K. Aerosol from hot cooking oil, a possible health hazard. Journal of Aerosol Science. 1996(27):S493-S4.
91. Zhu L, Wang J. Sources and patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution in kitchen air, China. Chemosphere. 2003;50(5):611-8.
92. Soleimani Z, Haghshenas R, Farzi Y, Taherkhani A, Naddafi K, Hajebi A, et al. Exposure and biomonitoring of PAHs in indoor air at the urban residential area of Iran: exposure levels and affecting factors. Chemosphere. 2024;356:141886.
93. Sidhu MK, Ravindra K, Mor S, John S. Household air pollution from various types of rural kitchens and its exposure assessment. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;586:419-29.
94. Li C, Bai L, Wang H, Li G, Cui Y. Characteristics of indoor and outdoor Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution in TSP in rural Northeast China: A case study of heating and non-heating periods. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2022;20(2):899-913.
95. Du W, Jiang S, Lei Y, Wang J, Cui Z, Xiang P, et al. Occurrence, formation mechanism, and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in barbecued food. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2025;293:118046.
96. Rose M, Holland J, Dowding A, Petch SR, White S, Fernandes A, et al. Investigation into the formation of PAHs in foods prepared in the home to determine the effects of frying, grilling, barbecuing, toasting and roasting. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2015;78:1-9.
97. Yao Z, Li J, Wu B, Hao X, Yin Y, Jiang X. Characteristics of PAHs from deep-frying and frying cooking fumes. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2015;22:16110-20.
98. Min S, Patra JK, Shin H-S. Factors influencing inhibition of eight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in heated meat model system. Food Chemistry. 2018;239:993-1000.
99. Chen BH, Chen YC. Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the smoke from heated model lipids and food lipids. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2001;49(11):5238-43.
100. McGrath TE, Chan WG, Hajaligol MR. Low temperature mechanism for the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from the pyrolysis of cellulose. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 2003;66(1-2):51-70.
101. Li Y-C, Qiu J-Q, Shu M, Ho SSH, Cao J-J, Wang G-H, et al. Characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM 2.5 emitted from different cooking activities in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2018;25:4750-60.
102. Singh L, Agarwal T, Simal-Gandara J. PAHs, diet and cancer prevention: Cooking process driven-strategies. Trends in food science & technology. 2020;99:487-506.
103. Hamidi EN, Hajeb P, Selamat J, Razis AFA. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their bioaccessibility in meat: A tool for assessing human cancer risk. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2016;17(1):15-23.
104. Rey-Salgueiro L, García-Falcón MS, Martínez-Carballo E, Simal-Gándara J. Effects of toasting procedures on the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in toasted bread. Food Chemistry. 2008;108(2):607-15.
105. Saito E, Tanaka N, Miyazaki A, Tsuzaki M. Concentration and particle size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons formed by thermal cooking. Food chemistry. 2014;153:285-91.
106. Karslıoğlu B, Kolsarıcı N. The impact of fat contents and different cooking processes on the potential health concerns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in chicken doner kebabs. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds. 2024:1-20.
107. Lee J-G, Kim S-Y, Moon J-S, Kim S-H, Kang D-H, Yoon H-J. Effects of grilling procedures on levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meats. Food chemistry. 2016;199:632-8.
108. Sankhyan S, Zabinski K, O'Brien RE, Coyan S, Patel S, Vance ME. Aerosol emissions and their volatility from heating different cooking oils at multiple temperatures. Environmental Science: Atmospheres. 2022;2(6):1364-75.
109. TA C. Mutagenicity and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content of fumes from heated cooking oils produced in Taiwan. Mutation Research. 1997;381:157-61.
110. Huboyo HS, Tohno S, Cao R. Indoor PM2. 5 characteristics and CO concentration related to water-based and oil-based cooking emissions using a gas stove. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2011;11(4):401-11.
111. Lewné M, Johannesson S, Strandberg B, Bigert C. Exposure to particles, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide in Swedish restaurant kitchen workers. Annals of work exposures and health. 2017;61(2):152-63.
112. Yu K-P, Yang KR, Chen YC, Gong JY, Chen YP, Shih H-C, et al. Indoor air pollution from gas cooking in five Taiwanese families. Building and Environment. 2015;93:258-66.
113. Cancer) IIAfRo. Household Use of Solid Fuels and High Temperature Frying. In IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on
Cancer: Lyon, France. 2010;95:1-430.
114. Zhu Y, Duan X, Qin N, Lv J, Wu G, Wei F. Health risk from dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a typical high cancer incidence area in southwest China. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;649:731-8.
115. Deng N, Zheng X, Shi S. Assessment of health risks of PAHs from rural cooking emissions: Neighborhood diffusion and the impact of village settlement characteristics. Building and Environment. 2023;244:110801.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 10 No 4 (2025): Autumn 2025 | |
| Section | Original Research | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/japh.v10i4.20616 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Meat; Oils; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Risk assessment | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Zarei A, Qasemi M, Shams M, Afsharnia M, Alami A. Analysis and health risk assessment of priority gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during meat frying: A mathematical modelling. JAPH. 2025;10(4):499-524.
