Indoor dust as a mercury reservoir: A case study on indoor microenvironments located in Ernakulam district, Kerala state, India
Abstract
Introduction: Research on indoor air pollution using settled dust as a medium is limited in India; therefore, this study presents the first comprehensive assessment of Total mercury (THg) in settled indoor dust across various
indoor microenvironments in the Ernakulam district of Kerala state, located in southwestern India.
Materials and methods: Sampling was conducted in the third week of February and the first week of March 2022 (n=32) in seven types of indoor microenvironments. Passive sampling was employed for the collection of
settled dust samples, and THg in the dust samples was analysed using a Direct Mercury Analyser (Milestone DMA-80, USA).
Results: The average THg concentration across all sampled environments was 0.90±0.66 mg/kg. Correlation analysis revealed a moderate (r=0.48) but statistically significant relationship (p<0.05) between THg levels and population density, likely due to contaminants brought to the indoor spaces by the people. Health risk evaluation based on hazard quotient (HQ) for ingestion and dermal exposures suggested that ingestion is the primary route of mercury exposure, with museums posing a high HQing value (0.0295) and furniture making shops posing a low HQing value (0.0001).
Conclusion: This study highlights the need for mercury monitoring in urban built environments and the possible sources of mercury contamination in various indoor microenvironments. The study suggests protective measures for personal protection from dust exposure. Finally, the study concludes by suggesting the requirement for broader surveillance of mercury in various built environments in India.
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2. Salthammer T. Emerging indoor pollutants. Vol. 224, International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. Elsevier GmbH; 2020.
3. Liu Y, Zhan Z, Du F, Kong S, Liu Y. Indoor air concentrations of mercury species in incineration plants for municipal solid waste (MSW) and hospital waste (HW). Chemosphere. 2009 Apr;75(2):266–71.
4. Stein ED, Cohen Y, Winer AM. Environmental distribution and transformation of mercury compounds. Vol. 26, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. Taylor and Francis Inc. 1996. p. 1–43.
5. Liang S, Wang Y, Cinnirella S, Pirrone N. Atmospheric mercury footprints of nations. Environ Sci Technol. 2015 Mar 17;49(6):3566–74.
6. Burger Chakraborty L, Qureshi A, Vadenbo C, Hellweg S. Anthropogenic mercury flows in india and impacts of emission controls. Environ Sci Technol. 2013 Aug 6;47(15):8105–13.
7. Pirrone N, Cinnirella S, Feng X, Finkelman RB, Friedli HR, Leaner J, et al. Global mercury emissions to the atmosphere from anthropogenic and natural sources. Atmos Chem Phys. 2010;10(13):5951–64.
8. Qureshi A. Mercury in the Environment Around Industrially Impacted Locations in India: A Mini-Review. Vol. 109, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. Springer. 2022. p. 937–42.
9. Beckers F, Rinklebe J. Cycling of mercury in the environment: Sources, fate, and human health implications: A review. Vol. 47, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. Taylor and Francis Inc. 2017. p. 693–794.
10. Karuppasamy MB, Natesan U, Karuppannan S, Chandrasekaran LN, Hussain S, Almohamad H, et al. Multivariate Urban Air Quality Assessment of Indoor and Outdoor Environments at Chennai Metropolis in South India. Atmosphere (Basel). 2022 Oct 1;13(10).
11. Karottki DG, Spilak M, Frederiksen M, Gunnarsen L, Vaclavik Brauner E, Kolarik B, et al. An indoor air filtration study in homes of elderly: cardiovascular and respiratory effects of exposure to particulate matter [Internet]. 2013. Available from: http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/116
12. Wan D, Zhan C, Yang G, Liu X, Yang J. Preliminary assessment of health risks of potentially toxic elements in settled dust over Beijing urban area. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2016 May 11;13(5).
13. Lu X, Li LY, Wang L, Lei K, Huang J, Zhai Y. Contamination assessment of mercury and arsenic in roadway dust from Baoji, China. Atmos Environ. 2009 May;43(15):2489–96.
14. Sun G, Li Z, Bi X, Chen Y, Lu S, Yuan X. Distribution, sources and health risk assessment of mercury in kindergarten dust. Atmos Environ. 2013 Jul;73:169–76.
15. Aubrac G, Bastiansz A, Basu N. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Mercury Exposure among Populations and Environments in Contact with Electronic Waste. Vol. 19, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. MDPI. 2022.
16. Thakur AK, Patel S. Indoor Air Quality in Urban India: Current Status, Research Gap, and the Way Forward. Vol. 10, Environmental Science and Technology Letters. American Chemical Society. 2023. p. 1146–58.
17. Kankaria A, Nongkynrih B, Gupta SK. Indoor air pollution in India: Implications on health and its control. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 2014 Oct 1;39(4):203–7.
18. Marcotte S, Estel L, Minchin S, Leboucher S, Le Meur S. Monitoring of lead, arsenic and mercury in the indoor air and settled dust in the Natural History Museum of Rouen (France). Atmos Pollut Res. 2017 May 1;8(3):483–9.
19. Sun G, Li Z, Bi X, Chen Y, Lu S, Yuan X. Distribution, sources and health risk assessment of mercury in kindergarten dust. Atmos Environ. 2013 Jul;73:169–76.
20. Tsydenova O, Bengtsson M. Chemical hazards associated with treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment. Vol. 31, Waste Management. 2011. p. 45–58.
21. Deering K, Spiegel E, Quaisser C, Nowak D, Schierl R, Bose-O’Reilly S, et al. Monitoring of arsenic, mercury and organic pesticides in particulate matter, ambient air and settled dust in natural history collections taking the example of the Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin. Environ Monit Assess. 2019 Jun 1;191(6).
22. Cox J, Indugula R, Vesper S, Zhu Z, Jandarov R, Reponen T. Comparison of indoor air sampling and dust collection methods for fungal exposure assessment using quantitative PCR. Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2017 Oct 1;19(10):1312–9.
23. Behrooz RD, Tashakor M, Asvad R, Esmaili-Sari A, Kaskaoutis DG. Characteristics and Health Risk Assessment of Mercury Exposure via Indoor and Outdoor Household Dust in Three Iranian Cities. Atmosphere (Basel). 2022 Apr 1;13(4).
24. Gworek B, Dmuchowski W, Baczewska-Dąbrowska AH. Mercury in the terrestrial environment: a review. Vol. 32, Environmental Sciences Europe. Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. 2020.
25. Nazarpour A, Ghanavati N, Watts MJ. Spatial distribution and human health risk assessment of mercury in street dust resulting from various land-use in Ahvaz, Iran. Environ Geochem Health. 2018 Apr 1;40(2):693–704.
26. Wippich C, Rissler J, Koppisch D, Breuer D. Estimating Respirable Dust Exposure from Inhalable Dust Exposure. Ann Work Expo Health. 2020;64(4):430–44.
27. Ahmad J, Ali AA, Iqbal M, Ahmad A, Qureshi MI. Proteomics of mercury-induced responses and resilience in plants: a review. Vol. 20, Environmental Chemistry Letters. Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. 2022. p. 3335–55.
28. Nkansah MA, Fianko JR, Mensah S, Debrah M, Francis GW. Determination of heavy metals in dust from selected nursery and kindergarten classrooms within the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. Cogent Chem. 2015 Dec 31;1(1):1119005.
29. Ni W, Chen Y, Huang Y, Wang X, Zhang G, Luo J, et al. Hair mercury concentrations and associated factors in an electronic waste recycling area, Guiyu, China. Environ Res. 2014 Jan 1;128:84–91.
30. Ryan-Fogarty Y, Baldé CP, Wagner M, Fitzpatrick C. Uncaptured mercury lost to the environment from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) in scrap metal and municipal wastes. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2023 Apr 1;191.
31. Xu L, Zhang Y, Tong L, Chen Y, Zhao G, Hong Y, et al. Gas-particle partitioning of atmospheric reactive mercury and its contribution to particle bound mercury in a coastal city of the Yangtze River Delta, China. Atmos Environ. 2020 Oct 15;239.
32. Lai ACK, Tian Y, Tsoi JYL, Ferro AR. Experimental study of the effect of shoes on particle resuspension from indoor flooring materials. Build Environ. 2017 Jun 1;118:251–8.
33. Fikri E, Firmansyah YW, Arlinda S, Dwidjartini TR, Yunus MY, Puspitasari E. Particulate Matter (PM) Levels and Associated Health Risks at the Indonesian National Nuclear Energy Agency. International Journal of Design and Nature and Ecodynamics. 2024 Apr 1;19(2):699–704.
34. Noorian Najafabadi SA, Sugano S, Bluyssen PM. Impact of Carpets on Indoor Air Quality. Vol. 12, Applied Sciences (Switzerland). MDPI. 2022.
35. Mahfouz MM, Yigiterhan O, Elnaiem AE, Hassan HM, Alfoldy B. Elemental compositions of particulate matter retained on air condition unit’s filters at Greater Doha, Qatar. Environ Geochem Health. 2019 Dec 1;41(6):2533–48.
36. Bernhoft RA. Mercury toxicity and treatment: A review of the literature. Vol. 2012, Journal of Environmental and Public Health. Hindawi Publishing Corporation. 2012.
37. Zeitz P, Orr MF, Kaye WE. Environmental Health Perspectives • Volume 110 | Nuumber 2 | February 2002 Public Health Consequences of Mercury Spills: Hazardous Substances Emergency Events Surveillance System [Internet]. 1993. Available from: http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2002/110p129-132zeitz/abstract.html
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| Issue | Vol 10 No 4 (2025): Autumn 2025 | |
| Section | Original Research | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/japh.v10i4.20617 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Mercury profiling; Metropolitan area; Microindoor spaces; Settled dust; Exposu | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Lal N, Moorchilot V, Aravindakumar C, Aravind U. Indoor dust as a mercury reservoir: A case study on indoor microenvironments located in Ernakulam district, Kerala state, India. JAPH. 2025;10(4):525-542.
